Single-Threaded → Asynchronous → Concurrent → Actors
     ↓                ↓             ↓           ↓
   Start here    Hide latency   Background   Move data
                 (network)      CPU work     off main

// ✅ Simple, single-threaded
class ImageModel {
    var imageCache: [URL: Image] = [:]

    func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) throws {
        let data = try Data(contentsOf: url)  // Reads local file
        let image = decodeImage(data)
        view.displayImage(image)
    }

    func decodeImage(_ data: Data) -> Image {
        // Decode image data
        return Image()
    }
}

Build Settings → Swift Compiler — Language
→ "Default Actor Isolation" = Main Actor

Build Settings → Swift Compiler — Upcoming Features
→ "Approachable Concurrency" = Yes

// ❌ Blocks main thread until network completes
func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) throws {
    let (data, _) = try URLSession.shared.data(from: url)  // ❌ Freezes UI!
    let image = decodeImage(data)
    view.displayImage(image)
}

// ✅ Suspends without blocking main thread
func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) async throws {
    let (data, _) = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)  // ✅ Suspends here
    let image = decodeImage(data)  // ✅ Resumes here when data arrives
    view.displayImage(image)
}

class ImageModel {
    var url: URL = URL(string: "https://swift.org")!

    func onTapEvent() {
        Task {  // ✅ Create task for user action
            do {
                try await fetchAndDisplayImage(url: url)
            } catch {
                displayError(error)
            }
        }
    }
}

Task 1: [Fetch Image] → (suspend) → [Decode] → [Display]
Task 2: [Fetch News]  → (suspend) → [Display News]

Main Thread Timeline:
[Fetch Image] → [Fetch News] → [Decode Image] → [Display Image] → [Display News]

func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) async throws {
    let (data, _) = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)
    let image = decodeImage(data)  // ❌ 200ms on main thread!
    view.displayImage(image)
}

func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) async throws {
    let (data, _) = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)
    let image = await decodeImage(data)  // ✅ Runs on background thread
    view.displayImage(image)
}

@concurrent
func decodeImage(_ data: Data) async -> Image {
    // ✅ Always runs on background thread pool
    // Good for: image processing, file I/O, parsing
    return Image()
}

// ✅ Stays on caller's actor
nonisolated
func decodeImage(_ data: Data) -> Image {
    // Runs on whatever actor called it
    // Main actor → stays on main actor
    // Background → stays on background
    return Image()
}

@MainActor
class ImageModel {
    var cachedImage: [URL: Image] = [:]  // Main actor data

    @concurrent
    func decodeImage(_ data: Data, at url: URL) async -> Image {
        if let image = cachedImage[url] {  // ❌ Error: main actor access!
            return image
        }
        // decode...
    }
}

func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) async throws {
    // ✅ Check cache on main actor BEFORE async work
    if let image = cachedImage[url] {
        view.displayImage(image)
        return
    }

    let (data, _) = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)
    let image = await decodeImage(data)  // No URL needed now
    view.displayImage(image)
}

@concurrent
func decodeImage(_ data: Data) async -> Image {
    // ✅ No main actor access needed
    return Image()
}

@concurrent
func decodeImage(_ data: Data, at url: URL) async -> Image {
    // ✅ Await to access main actor data
    if let image = await cachedImage[url] {
        return image
    }
    // decode...
}

nonisolated
func decodeImage(_ data: Data) -> Image {
    // ✅ No actor isolation, can call from anywhere
    return Image()
}

Main Thread:    [UI] → (suspend) → [UI Update]
                         ↓
Background Pool: [Task A] → [Task B] → [Task A resumes]
                 Thread 1    Thread 2    Thread 3

@MainActor
class ImageModel {
    var cachedImage: [URL: Image] = [:]
    let networkManager: NetworkManager = NetworkManager()  // ❌ Also @MainActor

    func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) async throws {
        // ✅ Background work...
        let connection = await networkManager.openConnection(for: url)  // ❌ Hops to main!
        let data = try await connection.data(from: url)
        await networkManager.closeConnection(connection, for: url)  // ❌ Hops to main!

        let image = await decodeImage(data)
        view.displayImage(image)
    }
}

// ✅ Move network state off main actor
actor NetworkManager {
    var openConnections: [URL: Connection] = [:]

    func openConnection(for url: URL) -> Connection {
        if let connection = openConnections[url] {
            return connection
        }
        let connection = Connection()
        openConnections[url] = connection
        return connection
    }

    func closeConnection(_ connection: Connection, for url: URL) {
        openConnections.removeValue(forKey: url)
    }
}

@MainActor
class ImageModel {
    let networkManager: NetworkManager = NetworkManager()

    func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) async throws {
        // ✅ Now runs mostly on background
        let connection = await networkManager.openConnection(for: url)
        let data = try await connection.data(from: url)
        await networkManager.closeConnection(connection, for: url)

        let image = await decodeImage(data)
        view.displayImage(image)
    }
}

// ✅ Value types copy when passed
let url = URL(string: "https://swift.org")!

Task {
    // ✅ This is a COPY of url, not the original
    // URLSession.shared.data runs on background automatically
    let data = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)
}

// ✅ Original url unchanged by background task

// ✅ Basic types
extension URL: Sendable {}
extension String: Sendable {}
extension Int: Sendable {}
extension Date: Sendable {}

// ✅ Collections of Sendable elements
extension Array: Sendable where Element: Sendable {}
extension Dictionary: Sendable where Key: Sendable, Value: Sendable {}

// ✅ Structs/enums with Sendable storage
struct Track: Sendable {
    let id: String
    let title: String
    let duration: TimeInterval
}

enum PlaybackState: Sendable {
    case stopped
    case playing
    case paused
}

// ✅ Main actor types
@MainActor class ImageModel {}  // Implicitly Sendable (actor protects state)

// ✅ Actor types
actor NetworkManager {}  // Implicitly Sendable (actor protects state)

// ❌ Classes are NOT Sendable by default
class MyImage {
    var width: Int
    var height: Int
    var pixels: [Color]

    func scale(by factor: Double) {
        // Mutates shared state
    }
}

let image = MyImage()
let otherImage = image  // ✅ Both reference SAME object

image.scale(by: 0.5)  // ✅ Changes visible through otherImage!

func scaleAndDisplay(imageName: String) {
    let image = loadImage(imageName)

    Task {
        image.scale(by: 0.5)  // Background task modifying
    }

    view.displayImage(image)  // Main thread reading
    // ❌ DATA RACE! Both threads could touch same object!
}

@concurrent
func scaleAndDisplay(imageName: String) async {
    let image = loadImage(imageName)
    image.scale(by: 0.5)  // ✅ All modifications on background
    image.applyAnotherEffect()  // ✅ Still on background

    await view.displayImage(image)  // ✅ Send to main actor AFTER modifications done
    // ✅ Main actor now owns image exclusively
}

func fetchAndDisplayImage(url: URL) async throws {
    let (data, _) = try await URLSession.shared.data(from: url)
    //  ↑ Sendable    ↑ Sendable (crosses to background)

    let image = await decodeImage(data)
    //          ↑ data crosses to background (must be Sendable)
    //                            ↑ image returns to main (must be Sendable)
}

// ✅ Enum (no associated values)
private enum PlaybackState: Sendable {
    case stopped
    case playing
    case paused
}

// ✅ Struct (all properties Sendable)
struct Track: Sendable {
    let id: String
    let title: String
    let artist: String?
}

// ✅ Enum with Sendable associated values
enum Result: Sendable {
    case success(data: Data)
    case failure(error: Error)  // Error is Sendable
}

nonisolated func delegate(_ param: SomeType) {
    // ✅ Step 1: Capture delegate parameter values BEFORE Task
    let value = param.value
    let status = param.status

    // ✅ Step 2: Task hop to MainActor
    Task { @MainActor in
        // ✅ Step 3: Safe to access self (we're on MainActor)
        self.property = value
        print("Status: \(status)")
    }
}

class MusicPlayer {
    private var progressTask: Task<Void, Never>?

    func startMonitoring() {
        progressTask = Task { [weak self] in  // ✅ Weak capture
            guard let self = self else { return }

            while !Task.isCancelled {
                await self.updateProgress()
            }
        }
    }

    deinit {
        progressTask?.cancel()
    }
}

@concurrent
func decodeImage(_ data: Data) async -> Image {
    // ✅ Always runs on background thread pool
    // Good for: image processing, file I/O, JSON parsing
    return Image()
}

// Usage
let image = await decodeImage(data)  // Automatically offloads

protocol Exportable {
    func export()
}

class PhotoProcessor {
    @MainActor
    func exportAsPNG() {
        // Export logic requiring UI access
    }
}

// ✅ Conform with explicit isolation
extension StickerModel: @MainActor Exportable {
    func export() {
        photoProcessor.exportAsPNG()  // ✅ Safe: both on MainActor
    }
}

var currentTime: TimeInterval {
    get async {
        // ✅ Cache reference for atomic snapshot
        guard let player = player else { return 0 }
        return player.currentTime
    }
}

@MainActor
class PlayerViewModel: ObservableObject {
    @Published var currentTrack: Track?
    @Published var isPlaying: Bool = false

    func play(_ track: Track) async {
        // Already on MainActor
        self.currentTrack = track
        self.isPlaying = true
    }
}

actor DataFetcher {
    let modelContainer: ModelContainer

    func fetchAllTracks() async throws -> [Track] {
        let context = ModelContext(modelContainer)
        let descriptor = FetchDescriptor<Track>(
            sortBy: [SortDescriptor(\.title)]
        )
        return try context.fetch(descriptor)
    }
}

@MainActor
class TrackViewModel: ObservableObject {
    @Published var tracks: [Track] = []

    func loadTracks() async {
        let fetchedTracks = try await fetcher.fetchAllTracks()
        self.tracks = fetchedTracks  // Back on MainActor
    }
}

actor CoreDataFetcher {
    func fetchTracksID(genre: String) async throws -> [String] {
        let context = persistentContainer.newBackgroundContext()
        var trackIDs: [String] = []

        try await context.perform {
            let request = NSFetchRequest<CDTrack>(entityName: "Track")
            request.predicate = NSPredicate(format: "genre = %@", genre)
            let results = try context.fetch(request)
            trackIDs = results.map { $0.id }  // Extract IDs before leaving context
        }

        return trackIDs  // Lightweight, Sendable
    }
}

actor DataImporter {
    func importRecords(_ records: [RawRecord], onProgress: @MainActor (Int, Int) -> Void) async throws {
        let chunkSize = 1000
        let context = ModelContext(modelContainer)

        for (index, chunk) in records.chunked(into: chunkSize).enumerated() {
            for record in chunk {
                context.insert(Track(from: record))
            }
            try context.save()

            let processed = (index + 1) * chunkSize
            await onProgress(min(processed, records.count), records.count)

            if Task.isCancelled { throw CancellationError() }
        }
    }
}

actor DatabaseQueryExecutor {
    let dbQueue: DatabaseQueue

    func fetchUserWithPosts(userId: String) async throws -> (user: User, posts: [Post]) {
        return try await dbQueue.read { db in
            let user = try User.filter(Column("id") == userId).fetchOne(db)!
            let posts = try Post
                .filter(Column("userId") == userId)
                .order(Column("createdAt").desc)
                .limit(100)
                .fetchAll(db)
            return (user, posts)
        }
    }
}

Starting new feature?
└─ Is UI responsive with all operations on main thread?
   ├─ YES → Stay single-threaded (Step 1)
   └─ NO → Continue...
       └─ Do you have high-latency operations? (network, file I/O)
          ├─ YES → Add async/await (Step 2)
          └─ NO → Continue...
              └─ Do you have CPU-intensive work? (Instruments shows main thread busy)
                 ├─ YES → Add @concurrent or nonisolated (Step 3)
                 └─ NO → Continue...
                     └─ Is main actor contention causing slowdowns?
                        └─ YES → Extract subsystem to actor (Step 4)

Error: "Main actor-isolated property accessed from nonisolated context"
├─ In delegate method?
│  └─ Pattern 2: Value Capture Before Task
├─ In async function?
│  └─ Add @MainActor or call from Task { @MainActor in }
└─ In @concurrent function?
   └─ Move access to caller, use await, or make nonisolated

Error: "Type does not conform to Sendable"
├─ Enum/struct with Sendable properties?
│  └─ Add `: Sendable`
└─ Class?
   └─ Make @MainActor or keep non-Sendable (don't share concurrently)

Want to offload work to background?
├─ Always background (image processing)?
│  └─ Use @concurrent (Swift 6.2+)
├─ Caller decides?
│  └─ Use nonisolated
└─ Too much main actor state?
   └─ Extract to actor

Build Settings → Swift Compiler — Language
→ "Default Actor Isolation" = Main Actor
→ "Approachable Concurrency" = Yes

Build Settings → Swift Compiler — Concurrency
→ "Strict Concurrency Checking" = Complete

// ❌ Premature optimization
@concurrent
func addNumbers(_ a: Int, _ b: Int) async -> Int {
    return a + b  // ❌ Trivial work, concurrency adds overhead
}

// ✅ Keep simple
func addNumbers(_ a: Int, _ b: Int) -> Int {
    return a + b
}