material-selection

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Material Selection

材料选择

Comprehensive knowledge base for architectural material selection covering structural performance, durability, thermal and acoustic properties, fire resistance, embodied carbon, cost, and aesthetic quality. Invoke this skill when addressing questions about material specification, material comparison, life-cycle assessment, embodied carbon targets, material detailing, finish selection, or material-appropriate design strategies.

建筑材料选择综合知识库,涵盖结构性能、耐久性、热工与声学性能、耐火性、隐含碳、成本及美学质量。当遇到材料规格、材料对比、生命周期评估、隐含碳目标、材料细部构造、饰面选择或材料适配设计策略相关问题时,可调用本技能。

Section 1: Material Selection Methodology

第1节:材料选择方法学

1.1 Eight-Criteria Evaluation Framework

1.1 八项标准评估框架

Every architectural material decision should be evaluated against eight performance criteria. Weight each criterion according to project priorities (structural warehouse vs. cultural institution vs. social housing).
Criterion 1: Structural Performance
  • Compressive strength (MPa)
  • Tensile strength (MPa)
  • Elastic modulus (GPa)
  • Yield strength and ductility
  • Fatigue resistance for dynamic loads
  • Span-to-depth ratio capability
  • Connection and jointing methods
Criterion 2: Durability and Weathering
  • Design life expectation (25, 50, 60, 100+ years)
  • Resistance to moisture, freeze-thaw, UV, pollution, biological attack
  • Maintenance frequency and cost
  • Patina and aging character (graceful vs. degrading)
  • EN 206 exposure classes (concrete); EN 350 durability classes (timber)
  • Corrosion resistance (metals); efflorescence (masonry)
Criterion 3: Thermal Properties
  • Thermal conductivity (λ, W/mK)
  • Specific heat capacity (c, J/kgK)
  • Thermal mass (decrement delay, admittance)
  • Contribution to U-value calculation
  • Thermal bridging potential (ψ-values at junctions)
Criterion 4: Acoustic Properties
  • Sound absorption coefficient (α) and NRC
  • Sound reduction index (Rw, dB)
  • Impact sound insulation (Ln,w)
  • Flanking transmission paths
  • Resonant frequency (for panel absorbers)
Criterion 5: Fire Performance
  • Euroclass rating (A1 to F) / ASTM E84 (Class A, B, C)
  • Fire resistance period (REI 30 to REI 240)
  • Reaction to fire (ignitability, flame spread, smoke production)
  • Charring rate (timber: 0.65 mm/min softwood, 0.50 mm/min hardwood)
  • Concrete cover requirements for fire rating
  • Intumescent and board-based fire protection for steel
Criterion 6: Embodied Carbon and Sustainability
  • Embodied carbon (kgCO2e per kg, per m², or per m³)
  • LCA stages A1-A5, B1-B7, C1-C4, D
  • Recyclability and recycled content
  • Renewable/non-renewable resource base
  • Transportation distance (local vs. imported)
  • Circular economy potential (Design for Disassembly)
Criterion 7: Cost
  • Material cost (per m², per m³, per linear meter)
  • Installation labor cost
  • Maintenance and replacement costs over design life
  • Whole-life cost (initial + maintenance + replacement + end-of-life)
  • Supply chain reliability and lead times
Criterion 8: Aesthetic Quality
  • Color, texture, pattern, translucency
  • Surface finish options
  • Ageing character and patina
  • Scale and module relationships
  • Tectonic expression (honesty of material)
  • Contextual appropriateness (regional materials, cultural associations)
每一项建筑材料决策都应依据八项性能标准进行评估。根据项目优先级(如结构型仓库、文化机构、社会住房等不同类型)为每项标准设置权重。
标准1:结构性能
  • 抗压强度(MPa)
  • 抗拉强度(MPa)
  • 弹性模量(GPa)
  • 屈服强度与延展性
  • 动载抗疲劳性能
  • 跨高比适配能力
  • 连接与拼接方式
标准2:耐久性与耐候性
  • 设计使用年限(25、50、60、100+年)
  • 防潮、抗冻融、抗紫外线、抗污染、抗生物侵蚀性能
  • 维护频率与成本
  • 包浆与老化特性(自然美观型 vs 性能退化型)
  • EN 206 暴露等级(混凝土);EN 350 耐久性等级(木材)
  • 耐腐蚀性(金属);泛碱现象(砌体)
标准3:热工性能
  • 导热系数(λ,W/mK)
  • 比热容(c,J/kgK)
  • 热质量(衰减延迟、导纳)
  • 对U值计算的贡献
  • 热桥潜力(节点处ψ值)
标准4:声学性能
  • 吸声系数(α)与降噪系数(NRC)
  • 隔声量(Rw,dB)
  • 撞击声隔声量(Ln,w)
  • 侧向传声路径
  • 共振频率(用于板式吸声体)
标准5:防火性能
  • 欧洲防火等级(A1至F)/ ASTM E84(A、B、C级)
  • 耐火极限(REI 30至REI 240)
  • 燃烧性能(可燃性、火焰蔓延、产烟量)
  • 炭化速率(木材:软木0.65毫米/分钟,硬木0.50毫米/分钟)
  • 防火等级对应的混凝土保护层厚度要求
  • 钢结构的膨胀型与板材型防火保护
标准6:隐含碳与可持续性
  • 隐含碳(每千克、每平方米或每立方米的二氧化碳当量)
  • LCA阶段A1-A5、B1-B7、C1-C4、D
  • 可回收性与回收成分占比
  • 可再生/不可再生资源属性
  • 运输距离(本地 vs 进口)
  • 循环经济潜力(可拆卸设计)
标准7:成本
  • 材料成本(每平方米、每立方米、每延米)
  • 安装人工成本
  • 设计使用年限内的维护与更换成本
  • 全生命周期成本(初始成本+维护+更换+报废处理)
  • 供应链可靠性与交付周期
标准8:美学质量
  • 颜色、纹理、图案、半透明度
  • 表面饰面选项
  • 老化特性与包浆效果
  • 尺度与模数关系
  • 建构表达(材料的真实性)
  • 场地适配性(地域材料、文化关联)

1.2 Decision Matrix Template

1.2 决策矩阵模板

Scoring: 1 (poor) to 5 (excellent) per criterion. Apply weighting multipliers (1.0-3.0) based on project priorities.
CriterionWeightOption A (Score)A WeightedOption B (Score)B WeightedOption C (Score)C Weighted
Structural1.5
Durability2.0
Thermal1.5
Acoustic1.0
Fire2.0
Embodied Carbon2.5
Cost2.0
Aesthetic1.5
TOTAL14.0ΣΣΣ
Interpretation: Highest weighted total = preferred option. Sensitivity analysis: vary weights ±0.5 to test robustness. If options score within 5%, treat as equivalent and decide on qualitative factors.

评分:每项标准1分(差)至5分(优秀)。根据项目优先级应用权重乘数(1.0-3.0)。
标准权重选项A(得分)A加权得分选项B(得分)B加权得分选项C(得分)C加权得分
结构性能1.5
耐久性2.0
热工性能1.5
声学性能1.0
防火性能2.0
隐含碳2.5
成本2.0
美学质量1.5
总计14.0ΣΣΣ
解读: 加权总分最高者为优选方案。敏感性分析:将权重上下浮动0.5以验证结果稳健性。若各选项得分差距在5%以内,可视为等效,需通过定性因素决策。

Section 2: Concrete

第2节:混凝土

2.1 Types

2.1 类型

In-Situ (Cast-in-Place):
  • Poured into formwork on site; cures in position
  • Maximum flexibility in form and geometry
  • Grades: C20/25 (foundations), C30/37 (structural frames), C40/50 (high-rise columns), C50/60 (prestressed)
  • Minimum 28-day strength; continued strength gain over months
Precast:
  • Factory-produced elements (beams, columns, panels, stairs, floors)
  • Superior quality control; consistent finish; rapid erection
  • Hollow-core slabs: 150-500 mm deep, spans 6-16 m
  • Sandwich panels: structural + insulation + facing leaf in single unit
Glass-Fibre Reinforced Concrete (GRC/GFRC):
  • Thin (10-25 mm) concrete panels with alkali-resistant glass fibres
  • Lightweight: 15-20 kg/m² (vs. 100+ kg/m² for solid precast)
  • Cladding and facade applications; complex curved forms
  • Flexural strength: 20-30 MPa (vs. 3-5 MPa for plain concrete)
Ultra-High Performance Concrete (UHPC):
  • Compressive strength: 120-200 MPa (vs. 30-50 MPa standard)
  • Steel fibre reinforced; no conventional rebar needed for thin sections
  • Density: 2,400-2,600 kg/m³
  • Enables extremely thin elements (25-75 mm structural walls, 15-30 mm panels)
  • Self-healing micro-cracks; exceptional durability
  • Cost: 5-10× standard concrete
  • Exemplars: MUCEM Marseille (Ricciotti), Ductal bridges
Self-Compacting Concrete (SCC):
  • Flows under its own weight; no vibration needed
  • Superior finish quality; fills complex formwork without voids
  • Used for architectural exposed concrete with demanding finish requirements
现浇(原位浇筑):
  • 在现场浇筑入模板,原位养护
  • 形式与几何形状灵活性最高
  • 强度等级:C20/25(基础)、C30/37(结构框架)、C40/50(高层柱)、C50/60(预应力)
  • 最低28天强度;后续数月强度持续增长
预制混凝土:
  • 工厂预制构件(梁、柱、板、楼梯、楼板)
  • 质量控制更优;饰面一致;安装速度快
  • 空心板:厚度150-500毫米,跨度6-16米
  • 夹芯板:结构层+保温层+饰面层一体化单元
玻璃纤维增强混凝土(GRC/GFRC):
  • 掺加耐碱玻璃纤维的薄型(10-25毫米)混凝土板
  • 轻质:15-20千克/平方米(对比实心预制板的100+千克/平方米)
  • 应用于围护与外立面;可实现复杂曲面造型
  • 抗弯强度:20-30兆帕(对比素混凝土的3-5兆帕)
超高性能混凝土(UHPC):
  • 抗压强度:120-200兆帕(对比标准混凝土的30-50兆帕)
  • 钢纤维增强;薄截面无需常规钢筋
  • 密度:2400-2600千克/立方米
  • 可实现极薄构件(25-75毫米结构墙、15-30毫米板材)
  • 微裂缝自愈合;耐久性极佳
  • 成本:为标准混凝土的5-10倍
  • 代表案例:马赛MUCEM博物馆(Ricciotti设计)、Ductal桥梁
自密实混凝土(SCC):
  • 依靠自重流动;无需振捣
  • 饰面质量更优;可填充复杂模板且无空隙
  • 用于饰面要求较高的建筑清水混凝土

2.2 Finishes

2.2 饰面

FinishMethodTextureTypical Cost Premium
Board-markedSawn timber formwork; grain transfersRough, directional+10-20%
Steel-formedSteel or resin-coated plywood formworkSmooth, uniformBaseline
PolishedDiamond grinding after curingMirror-like, exposes aggregate+30-50%
Acid-etchedAcid wash removes surface cement pasteExposed fine aggregate+15-25%
SandblastedAbrasive blastingExposed coarse aggregate+20-30%
Bush-hammeredMechanical hammeringRough, stone-like+25-40%
PigmentedIntegral oxide pigmentsColored throughout+15-30%
White concreteWhite Portland cement + white aggregateBright white+40-60%
Fabric-formedFlexible textile formworkOrganic, draped+20-50%
饰面类型工艺纹理典型成本溢价
木纹清水锯木模板;木纹转印粗糙、有方向性+10-20%
钢模饰面钢模或树脂涂层胶合板模板光滑、均匀基准价
抛光饰面养护后金刚石打磨镜面效果,露出骨料+30-50%
酸蚀饰面酸洗去除表面水泥浆露出细骨料+15-25%
喷砂饰面喷砂处理露出粗骨料+20-30%
剁斧饰面机械锤击粗糙、石材质感+25-40%
着色饰面整体掺入氧化物颜料通体着色+15-30%
白色混凝土白水泥+白色骨料亮白色+40-60%
织物模饰面柔性纺织模板有机形态、垂褶感+20-50%

2.3 Key Properties

2.3 核心性能

  • Density: 2,300-2,400 kg/m³ (normal weight); 1,400-1,800 kg/m³ (lightweight)
  • Thermal conductivity: 1.0-1.8 W/mK (normal); 0.5-0.8 (lightweight)
  • Specific heat capacity: 840-1,000 J/kgK
  • Thermal admittance: 5.0-6.0 W/m²K (excellent thermal mass)
  • Embodied carbon: 150-200 kgCO2e/m³ (standard OPC concrete); 80-120 kgCO2e/m³ (low-carbon with GGBS/PFA replacement)
  • Fire rating: inherently non-combustible (Euroclass A1). Concrete cover for fire resistance: 25 mm (REI 60), 35 mm (REI 90), 40 mm (REI 120), 55 mm (REI 240)
  • 密度:2300-2400千克/立方米(普通重量);1400-1800千克/立方米(轻质)
  • 导热系数:1.0-1.8 W/mK(普通);0.5-0.8 W/mK(轻质)
  • 比热容:840-1000 J/kgK
  • 热导纳:5.0-6.0 W/m²K(热质量优异)
  • 隐含碳:150-200 kgCO₂e/立方米(标准OPC混凝土);80-120 kgCO₂e/立方米(掺加GGBS/PFA的低碳混凝土)
  • 防火等级:本质不燃(欧洲防火等级A1)。耐火对应的混凝土保护层厚度:25毫米(REI 60)、35毫米(REI 90)、40毫米(REI 120)、55毫米(REI 240)

2.4 Architects of Concrete

2.4 混凝土风格建筑师

  • Tadao Ando: Smooth board-marked finish with precise tie-hole patterns (600 mm grid); Church of the Light, Naoshima museums
  • Peter Zumthor: Textured, layered concrete (Therme Vals — local quartzite aggregate; Bruder Klaus Chapel — charred timber interior formwork)
  • Louis Kahn: Monumental concrete with expressed structure (Salk Institute, National Assembly Dhaka — concrete + marble aggregate)
  • Oscar Niemeyer: Sculptural white concrete (Brasilia Cathedral — hyperboloid shell; Niteroi Museum)
  • Le Corbusier: Beton brut (Unite d'Habitation, Chandigarh — board-marked exposed concrete)
  • Zaha Hadid: UHPC and GRC for fluid geometries (Heydar Aliyev Center — GRC panels)
  • Grafton Architects: Raw exposed concrete as civic material (UTEC Lima, Bocconi University)

  • 安藤忠雄: 带有精准对拉螺栓孔图案(600毫米网格)的光滑木纹清水混凝土;代表作品:光之教堂、直岛美术馆群
  • 彼得·卒姆托: 富有纹理的分层混凝土(瓦尔斯温泉浴场——采用本地石英岩骨料;布鲁德·克劳斯教堂——内部采用炭化木模板)
  • 路易斯·康: 纪念性清水混凝土,结构外露(萨尔克生物研究所、达卡国民议会大厦——混凝土+大理石骨料)
  • 奥斯卡·尼迈耶: 雕塑感白色混凝土(巴西利亚大教堂——双曲面壳体;尼泰罗伊当代艺术博物馆)
  • 勒·柯布西耶: Beton brut粗野混凝土(马赛公寓、昌迪加尔——木纹清水混凝土)
  • 扎哈·哈迪德: 采用UHPC与GRC实现流动几何造型(盖达尔·阿利耶夫中心——GRC板材)
  • 格拉夫顿建筑师事务所: 将原生清水混凝土作为公共建筑材料(利马UTEC大学、博科尼大学)

Section 3: Steel

第3节:钢材

3.1 Structural Steel Grades

3.1 结构钢等级

Grade (EN)Yield Strength (MPa)Tensile Strength (MPa)Primary Use
S235235360-510Light structures, secondary steelwork
S275275410-560General building frames
S355355470-630Most common structural grade; beams, columns
S460460540-720High-rise, long-span, heavily loaded
ASTM Equivalents: A36 (≈S235), A992 (≈S345-S355), A572 Gr 50 (≈S345)
牌号(EN标准)屈服强度(MPa)抗拉强度(MPa)主要用途
S235235360-510轻型结构、次要钢结构
S275275410-560通用建筑框架
S355355470-630最常用结构牌号;梁、柱
S460460540-720高层建筑、大跨度、重载结构
ASTM对应牌号: A36(≈S235)、A992(≈S345-S355)、A572 Gr 50(≈S345)

3.2 Stainless Steel

3.2 不锈钢

  • 304 (18/8): 18% chromium, 8% nickel. General purpose. Interior and mild exterior use. Yield 210 MPa.
  • 316 (18/10/3): Added molybdenum for enhanced corrosion resistance. Marine and polluted environments. Yield 220 MPa. Cost: +30-40% over 304.
  • Duplex 2205: High strength (yield 450 MPa) + corrosion resistance. Structural applications. Cost: +50-70% over 304.
  • 304(18/8): 含18%铬、8%镍。通用型。用于室内及温和室外环境。屈服强度210 MPa。
  • 316(18/10/3): 添加钼以提升耐腐蚀性。用于海洋及污染环境。屈服强度220 MPa。成本:比304高30-40%。
  • 双相钢2205: 高强度(屈服强度450 MPa)+耐腐蚀性。用于结构场景。成本:比304高50-70%。

3.3 Weathering Steel (Corten A/B)

3.3 耐候钢(Corten A/B)

  • Forms stable oxide patina (rust layer) that protects underlying steel
  • Eliminates need for painting; self-healing if scratched
  • Patina formation: 2-5 years for full development; color progression from orange to deep brown
  • Critical: Must not be used where run-off stains adjacent materials (limestone, concrete). Requires detailing to manage staining. Not suitable for marine environments (chloride prevents stable patina).
  • Exemplars: Angel of the North (Gormley), Barclays Center Brooklyn (SHoP), CaixaForum Madrid (Herzog & de Meuron)
  • 形成稳定的氧化包浆(锈层)以保护内部钢材
  • 无需涂漆;刮擦后可自修复
  • 包浆形成:2-5年完全形成;颜色从橙色逐渐变为深棕色
  • 注意事项: 不可用于径流会污染相邻材料(石灰石、混凝土)的场景。需通过细部设计控制染色。不适用于海洋环境(氯离子会阻碍稳定包浆形成)。
  • 代表案例:北方天使雕塑(Gormley作品)、布鲁克林巴克莱中心(SHoP事务所设计)、马德里CaixaForum美术馆(赫尔佐格&德梅隆设计)

3.4 Finishes

3.4 饰面

  • Painted: Shop-applied primer + topcoat. Recoat every 15-25 years. Most common.
  • Galvanized (hot-dip): Zinc coating 45-85 µm; 40-60 year life in mild environments. Matte silver-grey appearance.
  • Powder-coated: Thermoset polymer; color range unlimited; 20-30 year life exterior. Polyester (standard) or PVDF (premium, 30+ years).
  • Brushed/Polished: For stainless steel; various grades (No.4 brushed, No.8 mirror).
  • Patinated: Applied patina (chemical acceleration of natural oxidation); controlled finish for bronze, copper, steel.
  • 涂漆: 工厂喷涂底漆+面漆。每15-25年重涂一次。最常用。
  • 热浸镀锌: 锌层厚度45-85微米;温和环境下使用寿命40-60年。外观为哑光银灰色。
  • 粉末喷涂: 热固性聚合物;颜色选择无限制;室外使用寿命20-30年。聚酯型(标准)或PVDF型(高端,30+年使用寿命)。
  • 拉丝/抛光: 用于不锈钢;有多种等级(No.4拉丝、No.8镜面)。
  • 做旧包浆: 人工施加包浆(通过化学方式加速自然氧化);可用于青铜、铜、钢材的可控饰面。

3.5 Key Properties

3.5 核心性能

  • Density: 7,850 kg/m³
  • Thermal conductivity: 50 W/mK (carbon steel); 16 W/mK (stainless 304) — significant thermal bridging risk
  • Elastic modulus: 200-210 GPa
  • Embodied carbon: 1.55 kgCO2e/kg (primary/virgin, world average); 0.47 kgCO2e/kg (EAF recycled, 100% scrap). Steel is ~90% recyclable.
  • Fire: Loses 50% strength at ~550°C; unprotected steel reaches this in 15-20 minutes in standard fire
  • 密度:7850千克/立方米
  • 导热系数:50 W/mK(碳钢);16 W/mK(304不锈钢)——存在显著热桥风险
  • 弹性模量:200-210 GPa
  • 隐含碳:1.55 kgCO₂e/千克(原生钢,全球平均);0.47 kgCO₂e/千克(EAF回收钢,100%废钢)。钢材回收率约90%。
  • 防火性能:约550°C时强度损失50%;无保护钢材在标准火灾中15-20分钟即可达到该温度

3.6 Fire Protection Methods

3.6 防火保护方式

MethodAchievable RatingThicknessCost ($/m² protected)
Intumescent paintREI 30-1200.5-5.0 mm DFT$30-120
Sprayed mineral fibreREI 60-24015-50 mm$15-40
Board encasement (calcium silicate)REI 60-24015-50 mm$40-80
Concrete encasementREI 120-24025-50 mm$25-50
Water-filled hollow sectionsREI 120+N/A (hollow section)$50-100 (system)
方式可达到的耐火等级厚度成本(美元/平方米保护面积)
膨胀型防火涂料REI 30-1200.5-5.0 mm DFT30-120
喷涂矿物纤维REI 60-24015-50 mm15-40
板材包覆(硅酸钙板)REI 60-24015-50 mm40-80
混凝土包覆REI 120-24025-50 mm25-50
充水空心截面REI 120+不适用(空心截面)50-100(系统)

3.7 Connection Types

3.7 连接类型

  • Bolted: Site-assembled; adjustable; demountable (DfD-friendly). High-strength friction-grip (HSFG) bolts M16-M30.
  • Welded: Strongest; continuous load path; shop-welded preferred (controlled conditions). Site welding possible but requires NDT.
  • Pin joints: True pins (single bolt) allow rotation; used at truss nodes and portal bases.
  • Moment connections: Resist rotation; bolted end-plate or welded. Create rigid frames for lateral stability.
  • 螺栓连接: 现场组装;可调节;可拆卸(适配可拆卸设计DfD)。采用M16-M30高强度摩擦型(HSFG)螺栓。
  • 焊接: 强度最高;传力连续;优先工厂焊接(环境可控)。也可现场焊接,但需进行无损检测(NDT)。
  • 销轴连接: 采用纯销轴(单螺栓)实现转动;用于桁架节点与门式刚架柱底。
  • 刚接节点: 可抵抗转动;采用螺栓端板或焊接形式。形成刚性框架以提供侧向稳定性。

3.8 Architects of Steel

3.8 钢材风格建筑师

  • Mies van der Rohe: Expressed steel frame (Farnsworth House, Crown Hall, Seagram Building — bronze-anodized I-beams)
  • Norman Foster: High-tech exposed steelwork (HSBC HQ Hong Kong, Millennium Bridge, 30 St Mary Axe diagrid)
  • Renzo Piano: Lightweight steel + cable structures (Centre Pompidou with Rogers, Menil Collection)
  • Santiago Calatrava: Sculptural steel ribs and masts (City of Arts and Sciences, Milwaukee Art Museum)
  • Peter Rice (Ove Arup): Cast steel nodes and tensile structures (Lloyd's of London, Kansai Airport)

  • 密斯·凡·德·罗: 外露钢框架(范斯沃斯住宅、克朗楼、西格拉姆大厦——青铜阳极氧化工字钢)
  • 诺曼·福斯特: 高科技外露钢结构(香港汇丰银行总部、千禧桥、圣玛丽斧街30号斜交网格结构)
  • 伦佐·皮亚诺: 轻质钢+索结构(与罗杰斯合作的蓬皮杜中心、梅尼尔收藏馆)
  • 圣地亚哥·卡拉特拉瓦: 雕塑感钢肋与桅杆(艺术科学城、密尔沃基艺术博物馆)
  • 彼得·赖斯(奥雅纳): 铸钢节点与张拉结构(伦敦劳埃德大厦、关西机场)

Section 4: Timber

第4节:木材

4.1 Softwood Species

4.1 软木树种

SpeciesDensity (kg/m³)Strength ClassDurability (EN 350)Primary Use
European Spruce (Picea abies)380-450C16-C244 (poor)Structural framing, CLT
Scots Pine (Pinus sylvestris)440-530C18-C273-4Joinery, structural
Douglas Fir (Pseudotsuga menziesii)480-560C24-C303 (moderate)Heavy structural, glulam
Western Red Cedar (Thuja plicata)330-380C14-C162 (durable)External cladding, shingles
Larch (Larix decidua)470-560C24-C273 (moderate)External cladding, decking
Sitka Spruce (Picea sitchensis)380-440C16-C204 (poor)Structural framing
树种密度(kg/m³)强度等级耐久性(EN 350)主要用途
欧洲云杉(Picea abies)380-450C16-C244(差)结构框架、CLT
欧洲赤松(Pinus sylvestris)440-530C18-C273-4细木工、结构用
花旗松(Pseudotsuga menziesii)480-560C24-C303(中等)重型结构、Glulam
西部红柏(Thuja plicata)330-380C14-C162(耐久)外墙挂板、木瓦
落叶松(Larix decidua)470-560C24-C273(中等)外墙挂板、露台地板
西加云杉(Picea sitchensis)380-440C16-C204(差)结构框架

4.2 Hardwood Species

4.2 硬木树种

SpeciesDensity (kg/m³)Durability (EN 350)Hardness (Janka, N)Primary Use
European Oak (Quercus robur)600-7202 (durable)5,600Structural, flooring, joinery
Iroko (Milicia excelsa)550-6801-2 (very durable)5,100External joinery, cladding
Teak (Tectona grandis)580-6801 (very durable)4,700Marine, premium external
Accoya (modified Radiata Pine)5101 (very durable)4,000External, ground contact
American White Ash (Fraxinus americana)600-6804 (poor)5,900Internal flooring, furniture
American Black Walnut560-6403 (moderate)4,500Premium joinery, paneling
European Beech660-7405 (non-durable)6,400Internal flooring, furniture
树种密度(kg/m³)耐久性(EN 350)硬度(詹氏硬度,N)主要用途
欧洲橡木(Quercus robur)600-7202(耐久)5,600结构、地板、细木工
伊罗科木(Milicia excelsa)550-6801-2(极耐久)5,100室外细木工、挂板
柚木(Tectona grandis)580-6801(极耐久)4,700海洋环境、高端室外用
Accoya(改性辐射松)5101(极耐久)4,000室外、接地场景
美国白蜡木(Fraxinus americana)600-6804(差)5,900室内地板、家具
美国黑胡桃木560-6403(中等)4,500高端细木工、护墙板
欧洲山毛榉660-7405(不耐久)6,400室内地板、家具

4.3 Engineered Timber

4.3 工程木

Glulam (Glued Laminated Timber):
  • Laminations: 25-45 mm thick; glued with MUF or PRF adhesive
  • Grades: GL24h to GL32h (24-32 MPa bending strength)
  • Spans: 6-40 m (beams), up to 100+ m (arches)
  • Depth: typically span/15 to span/20 for beams
  • Cross-section: 100-600 mm wide, 200-2,400 mm deep
  • Can be curved (minimum radius ≈ 175× lamination thickness)
Cross-Laminated Timber (CLT):
  • Orthogonal layers (3, 5, or 7 ply); typically spruce
  • Panel sizes: up to 3.5 m × 16 m × 500 mm
  • Walls: 100-300 mm thick; floors: 140-350 mm thick
  • Spans: 4-8 m (floors), 3-4 m (walls for 6+ storey buildings)
  • Compressive strength perpendicular: 2.5-3.0 MPa
  • Airtightness: inherently airtight at panel body; joints sealed with tape/gaskets
Laminated Veneer Lumber (LVL):
  • 3 mm rotary-peeled veneers; all grain parallel (unlike plywood)
  • Higher strength than sawn timber of same species: bending 40-65 MPa
  • Available as beams, studs, and rim boards
  • Consistent, defect-free
Plywood:
  • Cross-laminated veneers; balanced layup
  • Structural grades: 12-25 mm for sheathing; 18-30 mm for flooring
  • Marine plywood: WBP (weather and boil proof) adhesive; tropical hardwood species
  • Birch plywood: premium face quality for joinery and furniture
胶合木(Glulam):
  • 层板厚度:25-45毫米;采用MUF或PRF胶粘剂粘接
  • 等级:GL24h至GL32h(抗弯强度24-32 MPa)
  • 跨度:6-40米(梁),可达100米以上(拱)
  • 梁高:通常为跨度的1/15至1/20
  • 截面:宽度100-600毫米,高度200-2400毫米
  • 可做成弧形(最小曲率半径≈175×层板厚度)
正交胶合木(CLT):
  • 正交层压(3、5或7层);通常采用云杉
  • 板材尺寸:最大3.5米×16米×500毫米
  • 墙体厚度:100-300毫米;楼板厚度:140-350毫米
  • 跨度:4-8米(楼板),3-4米(6层以上建筑的墙体)
  • 垂直面抗压强度:2.5-3.0 MPa
  • 气密性:板材本身自带气密性;接缝采用胶带/密封胶条密封
单板层积材(LVL):
  • 3毫米旋切单板;所有木纹平行(与胶合板不同)
  • 强度高于同树种锯材:抗弯强度40-65 MPa
  • 可制成梁、立柱、缘板
  • 性能稳定、无缺陷
胶合板:
  • 交叉层压单板;对称组坯
  • 结构等级:围护用12-25毫米;楼板用18-30毫米
  • 船用胶合板:采用WBP(耐候耐沸水)胶粘剂;采用热带硬木树种
  • 桦木胶合板:饰面质量优异,用于细木工与家具

4.4 Key Properties (Generic Softwood)

4.4 核心性能(通用软木)

  • Density: 350-550 kg/m³ (kiln-dried at 12% MC)
  • Thermal conductivity: 0.13 W/mK (perpendicular to grain) — natural insulator
  • Specific heat capacity: 1,600 J/kgK
  • Embodied carbon: -1.0 to -1.6 kgCO2e/kg (carbon-negative — sequesters more CO2 during growth than emitted in processing)
  • Embodied carbon (CLT panel): approximately -500 to -700 kgCO2e/m³ including sequestration
  • Fire performance: Euroclass D (combustible) but predictable charring rate allows fire engineering
  • Charring rate: 0.65 mm/min (softwood), 0.50 mm/min (hardwood), 0.70 mm/min (glulam)
  • Fire-engineered CLT: 90-120 minute resistance achievable with oversized sections (add 40-60 mm sacrificial charring layer per exposed face)
  • 密度:350-550千克/立方米(窑干,含水率12% MC)
  • 导热系数:0.13 W/mK(垂直木纹方向)——天然保温材料
  • 比热容:1600 J/kgK
  • 隐含碳:-1.0至-1.6 kgCO₂e/千克(负碳——生长过程中封存的CO₂多于加工过程排放的量)
  • 隐含碳(CLT板材):包含碳封存在内约为-500至-700 kgCO₂e/立方米
  • 防火性能:欧洲防火等级D(可燃),但炭化速率可预测,可进行防火工程设计
  • 炭化速率:0.65毫米/分钟(软木)、0.50毫米/分钟(硬木)、0.70毫米/分钟(胶合木)
  • 经过防火设计的CLT:采用加大截面时可达到90-120分钟耐火极限(每个外露面增加40-60毫米牺牲性炭化层)

4.5 Durability and Preservation

4.5 耐久性与防腐处理

EN 350 Durability Classes:
  1. Very durable (> 25 years ground contact): teak, iroko, accoya
  2. Durable (15-25 years): oak, sweet chestnut, western red cedar
  3. Moderately durable (10-15 years): Douglas fir, larch, Scots pine (heartwood)
  4. Slightly durable (5-10 years): spruce, pine (sapwood), hem-fir
  5. Not durable (< 5 years): beech, ash, birch (untreated external)
Preservation Methods:
  • CCA (Copper-Chrome-Arsenic): UC4 ground contact; restricted in EU for non-industrial use
  • Copper-based (ACQ, MCQ): residential-approved alternatives to CCA
  • Thermal modification: heat treatment (180-230°C) improves durability to Class 1-2; darkens color; reduces strength 10-20%
  • Acetylation (Accoya): chemical modification; Class 1 durability; 50+ year warranty above ground; dimensionally stable
  • Oil/wax finishes: maintenance coats every 1-3 years for external; UV protection
  • Fire retardant treatment: pressure-impregnated salts achieve Euroclass B (limited combustibility)
EN 350 耐久性等级:
  1. 极耐久(接地使用>25年):柚木、伊罗科木、Accoya
  2. 耐久(15-25年):橡木、甜栗木、西部红柏
  3. 中等耐久(10-15年):花旗松、落叶松、欧洲赤松(心材)
  4. 稍耐久(5-10年):云杉、松木(边材)、铁杉
  5. 不耐久(<5年):山毛榉、白蜡木、桦木(室外未处理)
防腐处理方法:
  • CCA(铜-铬-砷):适用于UC4接地等级;欧盟限制非工业用途使用
  • 铜基防腐剂(ACQ、MCQ):经住宅使用认证的CCA替代品
  • 热改性:热处理(180-230°C)可将耐久性提升至1-2级;颜色加深;强度降低10-20%
  • 乙酰化处理(Accoya):化学改性;耐久性1级;地上使用提供50年以上质保;尺寸稳定
  • 油/蜡饰面:室外使用每1-3年维护重涂;提供紫外线防护
  • 阻燃处理:加压浸渍盐类可达到欧洲防火等级B(难燃)

4.6 Architects of Timber

4.6 木材风格建筑师

  • Kengo Kuma: Timber as weaving/stacking element (Yusuhara Wooden Bridge Museum, V&A Dundee timber screen concept, Prostho Museum GC — interlocking timber grid)
  • Shigeru Ban: Structural innovation (Centre Pompidou-Metz — glulam gridshell; Tamedia Office — interlocking timber frame no metal connectors; Paper Bridge)
  • Peter Zumthor: Timber as sensory material (Steilneset Memorial — timber-framed cocoon; Swiss Pavilion Hanover 2000 — stacked timber beams)
  • Hermann Kaufmann: Mass timber pioneer (Illwerke Zentrum Montafon — 8 storey CLT/glulam hybrid; LifeCycle Tower)
  • Heatherwick Studio: Engineered timber at scale (Maggie's Leeds — timber lattice)

  • 隈研吾: 将木材作为编织/堆叠元素(汤原木桥博物馆、邓迪V&A博物馆木屏风概念、Prostho博物馆GC——互锁木网格)
  • 坂茂: 结构创新(梅斯蓬皮杜中心——Glulam网格壳;Tamedia办公楼——无金属连接件的互锁木框架;纸桥)
  • 彼得·卒姆托: 将木材作为感官材料(Steilneset纪念装置——木框架茧形结构;2000年汉诺威世博会瑞士馆——堆叠木梁)
  • 赫尔曼·考夫曼: 重木建筑先驱(Illwerke Zentrum Montafon——8层CLT/Glulam混合结构;生命周期塔)
  • 赫斯维克工作室: 大规模工程木应用(利兹Maggie's癌症护理中心——木格栅结构)

Section 5: Masonry

第5节:砌体

5.1 Brick

5.1 砖

Types:
  • Clay brick (fired): Most common; firing temperature 900-1,150°C determines color (buff to deep red to blue-black). Compressive strength 10-150 MPa.
  • Calcium silicate (sand-lime): Autoclaved; consistent dimensional accuracy; limited color (white, grey, pastel). Strength 15-50 MPa.
  • Concrete brick: Portland cement + aggregate; wide color range with pigments. Strength 7-40 MPa.
  • Engineering brick: High-strength (≥ 70 MPa Class A, ≥ 50 MPa Class B) and low water absorption (< 4.5% A, < 7% B). Blue-black color. DPC, retaining walls, below ground.
Standard Sizes:
  • UK standard: 215 × 102.5 × 65 mm (coordinating: 225 × 112.5 × 75 mm with 10 mm joints)
  • US modular: 194 × 92 × 57 mm (7⅝ × 3⅝ × 2¼ in)
  • US standard: 203 × 92 × 57 mm
  • Metric modular: 190 × 90 × 57 mm (200 × 100 × 67 mm with joints)
  • Roman: 295 × 90 × 40 mm (elongated, thin profile)
  • Continental long format: 490 × 90 × 40-52 mm
Bond Patterns:
  • Stretcher (running): All stretchers; half-bond offset. Single-leaf walls, cavity wall outer leaf. Most common.
  • Flemish: Alternating headers and stretchers in each course. Full-thickness wall; decorative.
  • English: Alternating courses of headers and stretchers. Strong cross-bonding; full-thickness wall.
  • Stack bond: No offset; vertical joints aligned. Purely decorative (requires reinforcement or veneer application). Modernist aesthetic.
  • Herringbone: Bricks at 45° in alternating directions. Decorative infill panels; paviors.
  • Monk bond: Two stretchers + one header per course. Variant of Flemish.
  • Header bond: All headers; full-thickness wall. Curved walls (radial bonding).
类型:
  • 黏土砖(烧制): 最常用;烧制温度900-1150°C决定颜色(浅黄色到深红色再到蓝黑色)。抗压强度10-150 MPa。
  • 硅酸钙砖(灰砂砖): 蒸压养护;尺寸精度一致;颜色选择有限(白色、灰色、淡彩色)。强度15-50 MPa。
  • 混凝土砖: 波特兰水泥+骨料;掺入颜料可实现丰富颜色。强度7-40 MPa。
  • 工程砖: 高强度(A级≥70 MPa,B级≥50 MPa)、低吸水率(A级<4.5%,B级<7%)。颜色为蓝黑色。用于防潮层DPC、挡土墙、地下部位。
标准尺寸:
  • 英国标准:215×102.5×65毫米(协调尺寸:含10毫米灰缝为225×112.5×75毫米)
  • 美国模数砖:194×92×57毫米(7⅝×3⅝×2¼英寸)
  • 美国标准砖:203×92×57毫米
  • 公制模数砖:190×90×57毫米(含灰缝为200×100×67毫米)
  • 罗马砖:295×90×40毫米(细长薄型)
  • 欧洲大陆长型砖:490×90×40-52毫米
砌筑方式:
  • 顺砖砌法(跑砖砌法): 全部为顺砖;半砖错缝。用于单叶墙、空腔墙外叶。最常用。
  • 佛兰芒砌法: 每皮砖交替排列丁砖和顺砖。用于厚墙;装饰性强。
  • 英式砌法: 丁砖皮和顺砖皮交替排列。交叉粘结强度高;用于厚墙。
  • 直砌法(堆砖砌法): 无错缝;竖缝对齐。纯装饰性(需配筋或作为饰面使用)。现代主义美学风格。
  • 人字形砌法: 砖块呈45°交替排列。用于装饰性填充板、铺路砖。
  • 僧侣砌法: 每皮砖为2块顺砖+1块丁砖。是佛兰芒砌法的变体。
  • 丁砖砌法: 全部为丁砖;用于厚墙。适用于弧形墙(放射状砌筑)。

5.2 Stone

5.2 石材

Stone TypeDensity (kg/m³)Compressive (MPa)PorosityDurabilityEmbodied Carbon (kgCO2e/kg)
Limestone (Portland)2,000-2,50020-605-20%Moderate-Good0.09
Sandstone (Yorkstone)2,000-2,40020-705-25%Variable0.06
Granite2,600-2,800100-2500.5-2%Excellent0.70
Marble (Carrara)2,600-2,80050-1500.5-3%Good (interior)0.12
Slate2,600-2,800100-2000.1-1%Excellent0.03-0.05
Basalt2,800-3,000150-3000.5-2%Excellent0.60
Travertine2,200-2,50030-805-15%Moderate0.12
石材类型密度(kg/m³)抗压强度(MPa)孔隙率耐久性隐含碳(kgCO₂e/kg)
石灰石(波特兰石)2,000-2,50020-605-20%中等-良好0.09
砂岩(约克石)2,000-2,40020-705-25%不稳定0.06
花岗岩2,600-2,800100-2500.5-2%极佳0.70
大理石(卡拉拉)2,600-2,80050-1500.5-3%良好(室内)0.12
板岩2,600-2,800100-2000.1-1%极佳0.03-0.05
玄武岩2,800-3,000150-3000.5-2%极佳0.60
洞石2,200-2,50030-805-15%中等0.12

5.3 Concrete Block

5.3 混凝土砌块

  • Dense block: 2,000-2,200 kg/m³; compressive 7-35 MPa; thermal conductivity 1.0-1.5 W/mK. Structural walls, foundations.
  • Lightweight aggregate block: 600-1,400 kg/m³; λ = 0.15-0.50 W/mK. Better insulation, reduced structural capacity.
  • Aircrete (AAC — Autoclaved Aerated Concrete): 400-800 kg/m³; λ = 0.10-0.20 W/mK; compressive 2-7 MPa. Non-loadbearing and low-rise loadbearing. Excellent thermal performance. Easy to cut and shape.
  • 密实砌块: 密度2000-2200千克/立方米;抗压强度7-35 MPa;导热系数1.0-1.5 W/mK。用于结构墙、基础。
  • 轻骨料砌块: 密度600-1400千克/立方米;导热系数λ=0.15-0.50 W/mK。保温性能更好,结构承载力较低。
  • 加气混凝土(AAC——蒸压加气混凝土): 密度400-800千克/立方米;导热系数λ=0.10-0.20 W/mK;抗压强度2-7 MPa。用于非承重及低层承重结构。热工性能优异。易于切割造型。

5.4 Mortar and Joints

5.4 砂浆与灰缝

Mortar Designations (BS EN 998-2):
  • M2 (1:2:9 cement:lime:sand): weak; heritage and soft brick
  • M4 (1:1:6): medium; general brickwork above DPC
  • M6 (1:½:4.5): medium-strong; external walls, moderate exposure
  • M12 (1:¼:3): strong; engineering brick, retaining walls, below DPC
Joint Profiles:
  • Flush: weathering neutral; clean modern appearance
  • Bucket handle (concave): good weathering; most common
  • Weathered (struck): sloped to shed water; traditional
  • Recessed: shadow line aesthetic; poor weathering (not for exposed positions)
  • Raked: deep recess for dramatic shadow; worst weathering performance
Embodied Carbon:
  • Clay brick: 0.22 kgCO2e/kg (typical); 0.14 (low-carbon production)
  • Limestone ashlar: 0.09 kgCO2e/kg
  • Concrete block: 0.08-0.12 kgCO2e/kg
  • AAC block: 0.28-0.34 kgCO2e/m² (per block face area)

砂浆标号(BS EN 998-2):
  • M2(水泥:石灰:砂=1:2:9):强度低;用于历史建筑与软砖
  • M4(1:1:6):中等强度;用于防潮层以上的普通砖砌体
  • M6(1:0.5:4.5):中高强度;用于外墙、中等暴露环境
  • M12(1:0.25:3):高强度;用于工程砖、挡土墙、防潮层以下
灰缝形式:
  • 平缝:耐候性中性;外观简洁现代
  • 凹圆缝(桶柄缝):耐候性好;最常用
  • 斜缝(刮缝):倾斜排水;传统风格
  • 凹缝:阴影线美学效果;耐候性差(不可用于外露部位)
  • 深凹缝:深凹槽形成强烈阴影;耐候性最差
隐含碳:
  • 黏土砖:0.22 kgCO₂e/千克(典型值);低碳生产工艺为0.14
  • 石灰石方石:0.09 kgCO₂e/千克
  • 混凝土砌块:0.08-0.12 kgCO₂e/千克
  • AAC砌块:按砌块表面积计算为0.28-0.34 kgCO₂e/平方米

Section 6: Glass

第6节:玻璃

6.1 Glass Types

6.1 玻璃类型

Float Glass: Basic annealed glass. Breaks into large sharp shards. Not safety glass. VLT 87% (clear 6 mm).
Toughened (Tempered): Heat-treated to 4-5× strength of annealed. Breaks into small granules. Safety glass for doors, balustrades, overhead. Cannot be cut after toughening.
Laminated: Two or more glass plies bonded with PVB or SentryGlas interlayer. Holds together when broken. Safety glass; security; acoustic; UV filtering. Structural glazing interlayer (SentryGlas) enables longer spans.
Insulating Glass Unit (IGU): Two or three panes separated by spacer bars and sealed cavity (air, argon, krypton). U-values: double air 2.8, double argon 1.1-1.3, triple argon 0.5-0.7 W/m²K.
Tinted Glass: Body-colored (grey, bronze, green, blue). Reduces VLT and SHGC. Absorbs solar energy (heats up).
Low-E Coated: Metallic oxide coating reflects long-wave infrared radiation. Soft coat (sputtered, pyrolytic) on surface 2 or 3 of IGU. Reduces U-value by 30-50%.
Solar Control: Selective coating that admits visible light while rejecting solar infrared. VLT:SHGC ratio (selectivity) ≥ 1.5 is good; ≥ 2.0 is excellent.
Fire-Rated: Wired glass (30 min integrity, no insulation); intumescent gel-filled (30-120 min integrity + insulation); borosilicate (integrity only).
Patterned/Textured: Rolled pattern on one surface. Obscured vision with light transmission. Reeded, fluted, hammered, stippled.
Printed/Fritted: Ceramic frit screen-printed and fused to glass surface. Solar shading, bird safety, decoration. Frit coverage 20-60%.
Etched/Sandblasted: Acid or abrasive surface treatment for translucency/privacy. VLT reduction 5-15%.
Dichroic: Vacuum-deposited metallic layers create color-shifting effects. Transmitted and reflected colors are complementary.
浮法玻璃: 基础退火玻璃。破碎后形成大块尖锐碎片。不属于安全玻璃。可见光透射比VLT 87%(6毫米透明玻璃)。
钢化玻璃: 经热处理,强度为退火玻璃的4-5倍。破碎后形成小颗粒。属于安全玻璃,用于门、栏杆、采光顶。钢化后不可切割。
夹层玻璃: 两层或多层玻璃通过PVB或SentryGlas中间层粘接。破碎后仍保持完整。属于安全玻璃;可用于安防、声学、紫外线过滤场景。采用结构级中间层(SentryGlas)可实现更大跨度。
中空玻璃单元(IGU): 两层或三层玻璃通过间隔条分隔,形成密封空腔(空气、氩气、氪气)。U值:双层空气中空2.8 W/m²K,双层氩气中空1.1-1.3 W/m²K,三层氩气中空0.5-0.7 W/m²K。
着色玻璃: 本体着色(灰色、古铜色、绿色、蓝色)。降低VLT与SHGC。吸收太阳能(会升温)。
低辐射镀膜(Low-E): 金属氧化物涂层可反射长波红外辐射。采用软镀膜(溅射、热解),位于中空玻璃的第2或第3面。可降低U值30-50%。
阳光控制镀膜: 选择性涂层,可透过可见光同时反射太阳红外辐射。VLT与SHGC的比值(选择性)≥1.5为良好,≥2.0为优异。
防火玻璃: 夹丝玻璃(30分钟完整性,无隔热性);膨胀凝胶填充型(30-120分钟完整性+隔热性);硼硅酸盐玻璃(仅完整性)。
压花/纹理玻璃: 单表面辊压花纹。透光不透视。包括竖条纹、凹槽纹、锤纹、点纹等。
印刷/彩釉玻璃: 陶瓷彩釉经丝网印刷后熔合到玻璃表面。可用于遮阳、鸟类防撞、装饰。彩釉覆盖率20-60%。
蚀刻/喷砂玻璃: 通过酸蚀或喷砂表面处理实现半透明/隐私效果。可见光透射比降低5-15%。
二向色玻璃: 真空沉积金属层形成变色效果。透射光与反射光为互补色。

6.2 Structural Glass

6.2 结构玻璃

  • Glass fins: Vertical glass blades supporting glazed facades. Toughened + laminated. Depth 150-500 mm; spans 4-12 m.
  • Glass beams: Laminated glass beams for roof support. Typically triple-laminated toughened. Spans 3-8 m.
  • Glass floors: Laminated toughened panels; minimum 3-ply for redundancy. Anti-slip surface treatment. Design load: 5 kN/m² typical.
  • Glass columns: Rare; bundled glass tube columns (Apple Stores); solid glass blocks (Hermes, Tokyo by MVRDV).
  • Point-fixed glazing: Stainless steel bolt fittings through drilled holes; spider brackets. Eliminates framing for maximum transparency.
  • 玻璃肋: 支撑玻璃幕墙的竖向玻璃肋。采用钢化+夹层玻璃。高度150-500毫米;跨度4-12米。
  • 玻璃梁: 用于屋顶支撑的夹层玻璃梁。通常为三层钢化夹层玻璃。跨度3-8米。
  • 玻璃地板: 钢化夹层玻璃面板;至少三层以保证冗余度。表面做防滑处理。设计荷载:典型值5 kN/平方米。
  • 玻璃柱: 应用较少;成束玻璃管柱(苹果门店);实心玻璃块柱(东京爱马仕店,MVRDV设计)。
  • 点支式玻璃: 不锈钢螺栓配件穿过钻孔;采用蜘蛛爪连接件。无需框架,实现最大透明度。

6.3 Key Properties

6.3 核心性能

  • Density: 2,500 kg/m³
  • Compressive strength: 800-1,000 MPa (rarely governing)
  • Tensile strength: 30-70 MPa (annealed); 120-200 MPa (toughened). Glass fails in tension.
  • Elastic modulus: 70 GPa
  • Thermal conductivity: 1.0 W/mK
  • Thermal expansion: 9 × 10⁻⁶ /°C
  • Acoustic: single 6 mm pane Rw ≈ 31 dB; laminated 6.4 mm Rw ≈ 34 dB; IGU 4-16-4 Rw ≈ 29 dB (coincidence dip)
  • 密度:2500千克/立方米
  • 抗压强度:800-1000 MPa(通常不起控制作用)
  • 抗拉强度:30-70 MPa(退火玻璃);120-200 MPa(钢化玻璃)。玻璃受拉破坏。
  • 弹性模量:70 GPa
  • 导热系数:1.0 W/mK
  • 热膨胀系数:9×10⁻⁶ /°C
  • 声学性能:单层6毫米玻璃隔声量Rw≈31 dB;6.4毫米夹层玻璃Rw≈34 dB;4-16-4中空玻璃Rw≈29 dB(存在吻合谷)。

6.4 Architects of Glass

6.4 玻璃风格建筑师

  • Norman Foster: Structural glass innovation (30 St Mary Axe diagrid, Apple Park, Great Court British Museum — glass roof)
  • Renzo Piano: Layered glass skins (Shard, Fondation Beyeler, California Academy of Sciences)
  • SANAA (Sejima + Nishizawa): Minimal glass enclosures (New Museum, Rolex Learning Center, Glass Pavilion Toledo — curved glass walls)
  • Jean Nouvel: Glass as cultural narrative (Institut du Monde Arabe, Fondation Cartier — transparent layers)
  • Apple Stores (Foster + Partners / Bohlin Cywinski Jackson): All-glass structures; glass fins, glass beams, glass stairs

  • 诺曼·福斯特: 结构玻璃创新(圣玛丽斧街30号斜交网格、苹果公园、大英博物馆大中庭——玻璃屋顶)
  • 伦佐·皮亚诺: 分层玻璃表皮(碎片大厦、贝耶勒基金会博物馆、加州科学院)
  • SANAA(妹岛和世+西泽立卫): 极简玻璃围护(新当代艺术博物馆、劳力士学习中心、托莱多玻璃馆——曲面玻璃墙)
  • 让·努维尔: 将玻璃作为文化叙事载体(阿拉伯世界研究院、卡地亚基金会——透明层叠)
  • 苹果门店(福斯特事务所 / Bohlin Cywinski Jackson): 全玻璃结构;玻璃肋、玻璃梁、玻璃楼梯

Section 7: Metals and Composites

第7节:金属与复合材料

7.1 Aluminum

7.1 铝

  • Density: 2,700 kg/m³ (1/3 of steel)
  • Tensile strength: 70-310 MPa (alloy-dependent; 6063-T6: 205 MPa)
  • Thermal conductivity: 160-200 W/mK (severe thermal bridging; require thermal breaks in window/curtain wall profiles)
  • Embodied carbon: 8.2 kgCO2e/kg (primary); 0.5 kgCO2e/kg (recycled). ~75% of all aluminum ever produced still in use.
  • Finishes: anodized (10-25 µm; natural silver, bronze, black; 30+ year life), powder-coated (60-80 µm polyester; any color; 20-30 year life), PVDF-coated (premium; 40+ year life)
  • Applications: curtain wall mullions and transoms, window frames, cladding panels, standing seam roofing, solar shading louvers
  • 密度:2700千克/立方米(为钢材的1/3)
  • 抗拉强度:70-310 MPa(取决于合金;6063-T6:205 MPa)
  • 导热系数:160-200 W/mK(热桥效应严重;窗户/幕墙型材需设置隔热条)
  • 隐含碳:8.2 kgCO₂e/千克(原铝);0.5 kgCO₂e/千克(回收铝)。有史以来生产的铝中约75%仍在使用。
  • 饰面:阳极氧化(10-25微米;天然银、古铜、黑色;使用寿命30+年)、粉末喷涂(60-80微米聚酯;任意颜色;使用寿命20-30年)、PVDF喷涂(高端;使用寿命40+年)
  • 应用场景:幕墙竖梃与横档、窗框、挂板、立边咬合屋面、遮阳百叶

7.2 Zinc

7.2 锌

  • Density: 7,130 kg/m³
  • Self-healing patina: natural zinc develops grey carbonate patina over 5-10 years
  • Pre-patinated options: pre-weathered grey, blue-grey, graphite, pigmented
  • Thickness: 0.7-1.0 mm for roofing/cladding (standing seam, flat lock tiles, shingles)
  • Embodied carbon: 3.1 kgCO2e/kg (primary); largely recyclable
  • Minimum slope: 3° (standing seam); 25° (overlapping tiles)
  • Lifespan: 80-100 years in moderate climates
  • Applications: roofing, wall cladding, rainwater goods, flashings
  • 密度:7130千克/立方米
  • 自修复包浆:天然锌在5-10年内形成灰色碳酸盐包浆
  • 预做旧选项:预风化灰、蓝灰、石墨色、着色
  • 厚度:屋面/挂板用0.7-1.0毫米(立边咬合、平锁扣瓦、木瓦型)
  • 隐含碳:3.1 kgCO₂e/千克(原生锌);可高度回收
  • 最小坡度:3°(立边咬合);25°(搭接瓦)
  • 使用寿命:温和气候下80-100年
  • 应用场景:屋面、外墙挂板、雨水管、泛水

7.3 Copper and Bronze

7.3 铜与青铜

Copper:
  • Density: 8,900 kg/m³
  • Patina progression: bright copper → brown (months) → dark brown (1-3 years) → green verdigris (7-15 years, climate-dependent)
  • Pre-patinated and tin-coated options available
  • Thickness: 0.6-0.7 mm for roofing; 3-6 mm for sculpture/cladding
  • Embodied carbon: 2.7 kgCO2e/kg (primary); 0.5 (recycled)
  • Lifespan: 100-200+ years (historical precedent: church roofs 300+ years)
  • Applications: roofing, cladding, flashings, rainwater goods, feature panels
Bronze:
  • Copper-tin alloy (typically 90/10 or 85/15)
  • Rich golden-brown patina; darker than copper
  • Used for doors, handrails, window frames, sculptural elements
  • Architects: Mies van der Rohe (Seagram Building — bronze I-beams), Carlo Scarpa (Brion Cemetery — bronze gates)
铜:
  • 密度:8900千克/立方米
  • 包浆演变:亮铜色→棕色(数月)→深棕色(1-3年)→绿色铜锈(7-15年,取决于气候)
  • 提供预做旧与镀锡选项
  • 厚度:屋面用0.6-0.7毫米;雕塑/挂板用3-6毫米
  • 隐含碳:2.7 kgCO₂e/千克(原生铜);0.5(回收铜)
  • 使用寿命:100-200+年(历史案例:教堂屋面可达300+年)
  • 应用场景:屋面、挂板、泛水、雨水管、特色面板
青铜:
  • 铜锡合金(通常为90/10或85/15比例)
  • 形成浓郁的金棕色包浆;颜色比铜深
  • 用于门、扶手、窗框、雕塑元素
  • 代表建筑师:密斯·凡·德·罗(西格拉姆大厦——青铜工字钢)、卡洛·斯卡帕(布里翁墓园——青铜大门)

7.4 Titanium

7.4 钛

  • Density: 4,510 kg/m³ (57% of steel)
  • Corrosion resistance: superior to stainless steel in all environments
  • Embodied carbon: 14.1 kgCO2e/kg (highest of common metals)
  • Cost: 10-20× structural steel per kg
  • Surface: matte grey; can be anodized for iridescent color
  • Exemplar: Guggenheim Bilbao (Frank Gehry, 1997) — 33,000 m² of 0.38 mm titanium panels; fish-scale cladding; changes color with light and weather
  • 密度:4510千克/立方米(为钢材的57%)
  • 耐腐蚀性:在所有环境中均优于不锈钢
  • 隐含碳:14.1 kgCO₂e/千克(常见金属中最高)
  • 成本:每千克为结构钢的10-20倍
  • 表面:哑光灰色;可通过阳极氧化实现彩虹色效果
  • 代表案例:古根海姆博物馆毕尔巴鄂馆(弗兰克·盖里设计,1997年)——33000平方米0.38毫米厚钛板;鱼鳞状挂板;颜色随光线与天气变化

7.5 ETFE (Ethylene Tetrafluoroethylene)

7.5 ETFE(乙烯-四氟乙烯共聚物)

  • Density: 1,750 kg/m³ (1% of glass weight per m²)
  • Light transmission: 90-95% (clear single layer); 40-60% (printed/fritted)
  • Tensile strength: 40-50 MPa (as film, 50-300 µm thick)
  • Self-cleaning: non-stick surface; no wash maintenance
  • Pneumatic cushions: 2-5 layers inflated at 200-600 Pa; U-value 1.8-3.5 W/m²K
  • Lifespan: 25-50 years (UV-resistant fluoropolymer)
  • Exemplars: Eden Project (Grimshaw), Allianz Arena (H&dM), Beijing Aquatics Center (PTW), Khan Shatyr (Foster)
  • 密度:1750千克/立方米(每平方米重量为玻璃的1%)
  • 透光率:90-95%(透明单层);40-60%(印刷/彩釉)
  • 抗拉强度:40-50 MPa(薄膜形态,厚度50-300微米)
  • 自清洁:不粘表面;无需清洗维护
  • 充气枕:2-5层,充气压力200-600帕;U值1.8-3.5 W/m²K
  • 使用寿命:25-50年(耐紫外线氟聚合物)
  • 代表案例:伊甸园项目(Grimshaw事务所设计)、安联球场(赫尔佐格&德梅隆设计)、北京水立方(PTW事务所设计)、可汗沙特尔帐篷(福斯特设计)

7.6 GRP/FRP (Glass/Fibre Reinforced Polymer)

7.6 GRP/FRP(玻璃/纤维增强聚合物)

  • Density: 1,500-2,000 kg/m³
  • Tensile strength: 100-400 MPa
  • Thermal conductivity: 0.3 W/mK (thermally non-conductive; no thermal bridging)
  • Corrosion-immune; no maintenance
  • Moldable to any shape (curved panels, ornamental elements, replica heritage details)
  • Applications: cladding panels, window surrounds, cornices, columns (replica stone/timber appearance)
  • 密度:1500-2000千克/立方米
  • 抗拉强度:100-400 MPa
  • 导热系数:0.3 W/mK(热不良导体;无热桥)
  • 耐腐蚀;无需维护
  • 可模制成任意形状(曲面挂板、装饰元素、历史建筑细节复刻)
  • 应用场景:挂板、窗套、檐口、柱子(仿石材/木材外观)

7.7 Terracotta

7.7 陶土

  • Clay-based; extruded or pressed; fired at 1,000-1,200°C
  • Rainscreen cladding: extruded hollow sections; 20-40 mm thick; back-ventilated cavity
  • Baguettes: horizontal or vertical tubular/blade elements for solar shading and facade articulation
  • Glazed terracotta: vitreous surface coating; colors unlimited; self-cleaning
  • Density: 1,800-2,100 kg/m³
  • Fire: Euroclass A1 (non-combustible)
  • Embodied carbon: 0.45 kgCO2e/kg
  • Exemplars: Natural History Museum London (Waterhouse), Renzo Piano (Central St Giles London — colored terracotta), MVRDV (Markthal Rotterdam — printed terracotta arches)
  • 以黏土为原料;挤出或压制成型;1000-1200°C烧制
  • 雨幕挂板: 挤出空心型材;厚度20-40毫米;背部通风空腔
  • 陶土棒: 水平或竖向管状/片状构件,用于遮阳与立面造型
  • 施釉陶土: 玻璃质表面涂层;颜色无限制;自清洁
  • 密度:1800-2100千克/立方米
  • 防火性能:欧洲防火等级A1(不燃)
  • 隐含碳:0.45 kgCO₂e/千克
  • 代表案例:伦敦自然历史博物馆(Waterhouse设计)、伦佐·皮亚诺(伦敦圣吉尔斯中心——彩色陶土)、MVRDV(鹿特丹市场大厅——印刷陶土拱)

7.8 Ceramic Tiles and Cladding

7.8 瓷砖与陶瓷挂板

  • Porcelain: absorption < 0.5%; frost-proof; 12-20 mm thick large format (up to 1.6 m × 3.2 m)
  • Stoneware: absorption 0.5-3%; good durability; glazed or unglazed
  • Earthenware: absorption > 3%; interior only; hand-decorated (zellige, azulejo)
  • Fire: Euroclass A1
  • Applications: facade cladding (ventilated rainscreen), floor/wall finishes, pool surrounds

  • 瓷质砖:吸水率<0.5%;抗冻;12-20毫米厚大规格(最大1.6米×3.2米)
  • 炻质砖:吸水率0.5-3%;耐久性良好;有釉或无釉
  • 陶质砖:吸水率>3%;仅室内使用;手工装饰(zellige、azulejo砖)
  • 防火性能:欧洲防火等级A1
  • 应用场景:外墙挂板(通风雨幕)、墙地面饰面、泳池周边

Section 8: Life-Cycle Assessment (LCA)

第8节:生命周期评估(LCA)

8.1 Whole-Life Carbon

8.1 全生命周期碳

Total carbon = Embodied carbon (A1-A5, B1-B5, C1-C4) + Operational carbon (B6-B7)
As buildings become more energy-efficient, embodied carbon becomes the dominant component (50-80% of whole-life carbon for Passive House-standard buildings).
总碳排放量 = 隐含碳(A1-A5、B1-B5、C1-C4)+ 运营碳(B6-B7)
随着建筑能效不断提升,隐含碳逐渐成为主要组成部分(对于被动房标准的建筑,隐含碳占全生命周期碳的50-80%)。

8.2 LCA Stages (EN 15978)

8.2 LCA阶段(EN 15978)

Product Stage (A1-A3):
  • A1: Raw material extraction
  • A2: Transport to manufacturer
  • A3: Manufacturing
  • This is the "cradle-to-gate" embodied carbon — most commonly reported
Construction Stage (A4-A5):
  • A4: Transport to site
  • A5: Construction/installation process (energy, waste, temporary works)
Use Stage (B1-B7):
  • B1: Installed product use (e.g., carbonation of concrete)
  • B2: Maintenance
  • B3: Repair
  • B4: Replacement (components with shorter life than building)
  • B5: Refurbishment
  • B6: Operational energy use
  • B7: Operational water use
End-of-Life Stage (C1-C4):
  • C1: Deconstruction/demolition
  • C2: Transport to disposal/recycling
  • C3: Waste processing
  • C4: Disposal (landfill)
Beyond Life (Module D):
  • Credits for reuse, recycling, energy recovery
  • Reported separately (not added to A-C total)
  • Steel recycling credit: -1.3 to -1.5 kgCO2e/kg
  • Timber reuse/energy recovery credit: variable
产品阶段(A1-A3):
  • A1:原材料开采
  • A2:运输至制造商
  • A3:生产制造
  • 即“从摇篮到大门”的隐含碳——是最常报告的指标
施工阶段(A4-A5):
  • A4:运输至现场
  • A5:施工/安装过程(能源、废弃物、临时工程)
使用阶段(B1-B7):
  • B1:已安装产品使用(如混凝土碳化)
  • B2:维护
  • B3:维修
  • B4:更换(寿命短于建筑的构件)
  • B5:翻新
  • B6:运营能源使用
  • B7:运营用水使用
报废阶段(C1-C4):
  • C1:解构/拆除
  • C2:运输至处置/回收场所
  • C3:废弃物处理
  • C4:处置(填埋)
生命周期后(D模块):
  • 可获得再利用、回收、能源回收的碳减排抵扣
  • 单独报告(不计入A-C阶段总和)
  • 钢材回收抵扣:-1.3至-1.5 kgCO₂e/千克
  • 木材再利用/能源回收抵扣:不固定

8.3 Embodied Carbon Benchmarks

8.3 隐含碳基准

LETI (London Energy Transformation Initiative) Targets:
Building Type2020 Target (kgCO2e/m² GIA)2030 TargetNotes
Office< 600< 350A1-A5 upfront carbon
Residential< 500< 300A1-A5 upfront carbon
School< 500< 300A1-A5 upfront carbon
Retail/Warehouse< 550< 350A1-A5 upfront carbon
RIBA 2030 Climate Challenge:
  • 2020: < 600 kgCO2e/m² (A1-A5)
  • 2025: < 450 kgCO2e/m²
  • 2030: < 300 kgCO2e/m²
IStructE Targets (structure only):
  • Residential: < 300 kgCO2e/m² (typical); < 200 (best practice)
  • Office: < 350 kgCO2e/m² (typical); < 250 (best practice)
  • Best-in-class timber buildings: < 150 kgCO2e/m² (structure)
LETI(伦敦能源转型倡议)目标:
建筑类型2020年目标(kgCO₂e/平方米 总建筑面积GIA)2030年目标备注
办公建筑< 600< 350A1-A5阶段前期碳
居住建筑< 500< 300A1-A5阶段前期碳
学校建筑< 500< 300A1-A5阶段前期碳
零售/仓库< 550< 350A1-A5阶段前期碳
RIBA 2030气候挑战:
  • 2020年:<600 kgCO₂e/平方米(A1-A5阶段)
  • 2025年:<450 kgCO₂e/平方米
  • 2030年:<300 kgCO₂e/平方米
IStructE目标(仅结构部分):
  • 居住建筑:<300 kgCO₂e/平方米(典型值);<200(最佳实践)
  • 办公建筑:<350 kgCO₂e/平方米(典型值);<250(最佳实践)
  • 顶级木材建筑:<150 kgCO₂e/平方米(结构部分)

8.4 Material-Level Embodied Carbon

8.4 材料层面隐含碳

MaterialUnitEmbodied Carbon (kgCO2e)Notes
Concrete (C30/37, OPC)per m³180-24030-50% GGBS replacement reduces to 100-150
Structural steel (primary)per kg1.55World average; UK ~2.0
Structural steel (recycled, EAF)per kg0.47Electric arc furnace, 100% scrap
Steel rebarper kg1.40Often high recycled content
Softwood timber (sawn)per kg-1.0 to -1.6Carbon sequestration exceeds processing
CLT panelper m³-500 to -700Including biogenic carbon
Glulamper m³-450 to -600Including biogenic carbon
Clay brickper kg0.22Range 0.14-0.30 depending on kiln
Limestone (Portland)per kg0.09Low processing energy
Aluminum (primary)per kg8.20High energy; use recycled where possible
Aluminum (recycled)per kg0.5094% reduction from primary
Float glassper kg0.86
Mineral wool insulationper kg1.20
PIR insulationper kg4.20High due to blowing agents
XPS insulationper kg4.40Highest of insulation types
Wood fibre insulationper kg-1.10Carbon-negative
Plasterboardper kg0.12Low carbon; recyclable
Copperper kg2.70High recyclability offsets
Zincper kg3.10
ETFEper kg6.50Very low quantity used per m²
材料单位隐含碳(kgCO₂e)备注
混凝土(C30/37,OPC)每立方米180-240掺加30-50% GGBS可降至100-150
结构钢(原生)每千克1.55全球平均;英国约为2.0
结构钢(回收电炉钢EAF)每千克0.47电弧炉,100%废钢
钢筋每千克1.40通常回收成分占比高
软木(锯材)每千克-1.0 to -1.6碳封存量超过加工排放量
CLT板材每立方米-500 to -700包含生物源碳
Glulam胶合木每立方米-450 to -600包含生物源碳
黏土砖每千克0.22范围0.14-0.30,取决于窑炉类型
石灰石(波特兰石)每千克0.09加工能耗低
铝(原铝)每千克8.20能耗高;尽量使用回收铝
铝(回收)每千克0.50比原铝减少94%
浮法玻璃每千克0.86
矿棉保温每千克1.20
PIR保温每千克4.20因发泡剂导致碳排放高
XPS保温每千克4.40保温材料中最高
木纤维保温每千克-1.10负碳
石膏板每千克0.12低碳;可回收
铜每千克2.70高回收率可抵消排放
锌每千克3.10
ETFE每千克6.50每平方米用量极低

8.5 Material Passports and Circular Economy

8.5 材料护照与循环经济

Material Passport: Digital record of all materials and components in a building — type, quantity, location, quality, toxicity, recyclability. Enables future recovery and reuse.
Circular Economy Principles for Architecture:
  1. Design for Longevity: durable materials, adaptable layouts
  2. Design for Disassembly (DfD): bolted connections (not welded/glued), layered construction (facade independent of structure), accessible fixings
  3. Design for Reuse: standard sizes, undamaged removal, material banks
  4. Use Recycled Content: specify minimum recycled content in steel (90%+ achievable), aluminum (50%+), concrete aggregate (20-30% RCA)
  5. Use Renewable Materials: timber, bamboo, hemp-lime, straw, earth
  6. Eliminate Waste: modular coordination, prefabrication, digital cutting optimization
Exemplars of Circular Design:
  • Triodos Bank HQ (RAU Architects, 2019, Driebergen) — timber structure fully demountable; bolted steel connections; every element logged in material passport (Madaster platform)
  • Park 20|20 (William McDonough, Amsterdam) — cradle-to-cradle certified; demountable facades; material passports for all buildings
材料护照: 建筑中所有材料与构件的数字记录——包括类型、数量、位置、质量、毒性、可回收性。支持未来的回收与再利用。
建筑领域循环经济原则:
  1. 长寿设计:采用耐久材料、可适应布局
  2. 可拆卸设计(DfD):螺栓连接(而非焊接/粘接)、分层构造(立面与结构独立)、紧固件可及
  3. 可再利用设计:标准尺寸、无损拆除、材料银行
  4. 使用回收成分:规定钢材(可实现90%+)、铝(50%+)、混凝土骨料(20-30%再生混凝土骨料RCA)的最低回收成分占比
  5. 使用可再生材料:木材、竹材、麻石灰、秸秆、生土
  6. 零浪费:模数协调、预制装配、数字化切割优化
循环设计代表案例:
  • Triodos银行总部(RAU建筑师事务所,2019年,德赖贝亨)——木结构完全可拆卸;螺栓钢连接;每个构件都记录在材料护照中(Madaster平台)
  • Park 20|20(威廉·麦克多诺,阿姆斯特丹)——从摇篮到摇篮认证;可拆卸立面;所有建筑均配备材料护照