fire-life-safety

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Fire and Life Safety Design

消防与生命安全设计

This skill provides practitioner-grade knowledge of fire and life safety design for architectural practice. It covers the architect's role in fire strategy, compartmentation, egress design, structural fire protection, smoke control, and active fire protection systems. All dimensional values are metric with imperial equivalents where standard practice requires.

本技能提供适用于建筑实践的从业者级消防与生命安全设计知识，涵盖建筑师在消防策略、防火分隔、疏散设计、结构防火、控烟及主动消防系统中的职责。所有尺寸值均采用公制，若行业惯例有要求则同时提供英制等效值。

Section 1: Fire Strategy Development

第1节：消防策略制定

The Architect's Role

建筑师的职责

The architect is the primary coordinator of fire strategy in building design. While fire engineers provide specialist analysis (computational fire modeling, structural fire engineering, smoke control design), the architect is responsible for integrating fire safety into the architectural concept from the earliest design stage.

Fire safety is not an add-on. Buildings that treat fire protection as an afterthought suffer from: compromised spatial quality (corridors widened at the expense of usable space), increased cost (fire-rated construction added where it could have been avoided by better planning), and occupant risk (egress paths that are long, confusing, or difficult to maintain).

建筑师是建筑设计中消防策略的主要协调者。消防工程师提供专业分析（计算火灾模拟、结构消防工程、控烟设计），而建筑师负责从设计最初阶段就将消防安全整合到建筑概念中。

消防安全不是附加项。将消防保护视为事后补充的建筑会面临以下问题：空间品质受损（走廊加宽挤占可用空间）、成本增加（本可通过合理规划避免的耐火构造被额外增设）、人员风险升高（疏散路径过长、易混淆或难以维护）。

Fire Safety Objectives

消防安全目标

Life safety: Ensure all occupants can evacuate or reach a place of safety before conditions become untenable. This is the primary objective and is non-negotiable.
Property protection: Limit fire damage to the area of origin or a defined compartment. Relevant for insurance, business continuity, and heritage buildings.
Business continuity: Design systems to minimize downtime after a fire event. Particularly important for: hospitals (defend-in-place), data centers, manufacturing, and critical infrastructure.
Environmental protection: Prevent fire-related contamination of soil, water, and air. Relevant for: chemical storage, waste facilities, sites near waterways.
Firefighter safety: Provide safe access for fire service operations. Firefighting shafts, wet/dry risers, fire command centers, adequate water supply.

生命安全： 确保所有人员在环境变得危及生命之前能够疏散或到达安全区域。这是首要目标，不可妥协。
财产保护： 将火灾损失限制在起火区域或指定防火分区内。与保险、业务连续性和历史建筑相关。
业务连续性： 设计系统以最大限度减少火灾后的停机时间。对以下场景尤为重要：医院（就地避难）、数据中心、制造业和关键基础设施。
环境保护： 防止火灾相关的土壤、水和空气污染。适用于：化学品存储、废物处理设施、临近水道的场地。
消防员安全： 为消防作业提供安全通道。包括消防竖井、干式/湿式消防竖管、消防指挥中心、充足的供水。

Prescriptive vs Performance-Based Approach

处方式与性能化设计方法对比

Prescriptive approach:

Follow code provisions directly (IBC, Approved Document B, NBC, etc.)
Advantages: straightforward, well-understood, defensible
Limitations: may be overly conservative, may not address novel building configurations, does not account for specific building use patterns

Performance-based approach:

Establish fire safety objectives, define design fire scenarios, demonstrate through engineering analysis that objectives are met
Methods: computational fire modeling (FDS, CFAST), evacuation modeling (Pathfinder, STEPS, Simulex), structural fire analysis (FEA with fire curves), smoke control analysis (CFD)
Advantages: can optimize design, accommodate complex geometries, provide a more accurate risk assessment
Limitations: requires specialist fire engineer, peer review, AHJ acceptance

Hybrid approach (most common):

Follow prescriptive code for most provisions
Use performance-based analysis for specific challenges: atrium smoke control, travel distance extensions, reduced fire resistance periods, alternative egress strategies

处方式方法：

直接遵循规范条款（IBC、Approved Document B、NBC等）
优点：直接明了、认知度高、有据可依
局限性：可能过于保守，可能无法应对新颖的建筑构型，未考虑特定的建筑使用模式

性能化方法：

确立消防安全目标，定义设计火灾场景，通过工程分析证明目标可实现
方法：计算火灾模拟（FDS、CFAST）、疏散模拟（Pathfinder、STEPS、Simulex）、结构火灾分析（基于火灾曲线的FEA）、控烟分析（CFD）
优点：可优化设计，适配复杂几何形状，提供更准确的风险评估
局限性：需要专业消防工程师、同行评审和主管部门（AHJ）认可

混合方法（最常见）：

大部分条款遵循处方式规范
特定难题采用性能化分析：中庭控烟、疏散距离延长、耐火时间缩减、替代疏散策略

Fire Strategy Report Content

消防策略报告内容

A fire strategy report (also called fire safety strategy, fire engineering report, or basis of fire safety design) should include:

Building description: use, occupancy, construction, geometry
Applicable codes and standards
Design fire scenarios (size, location, growth rate)
Compartmentation strategy and fire resistance schedule
Means of escape: travel distances, exit widths, evacuation strategy
Fire detection and alarm design
Sprinkler/suppression system scope
Smoke control strategy
Structural fire protection specification
Fire service access and facilities
Building management fire safety provisions
Drawings: compartmentation plans, egress plans, fire service access plans

消防策略报告（也称为消防安全策略、消防工程报告或消防安全设计基础）应包括：

建筑描述：使用性质、人员密度、构造、几何形状
适用规范和标准
设计火灾场景（规模、位置、增长速率）
防火分隔策略与耐火等级一览表
疏散设施：疏散距离、出口宽度、疏散策略
火灾探测与报警设计
喷淋/灭火系统范围
控烟策略
结构防火规范
消防通道与设施
建筑管理消防安全条款
图纸：防火分隔平面图、疏散平面图、消防通道平面图

Section 2: Compartmentation

第2节：防火分隔

Purpose

作用

Fire compartmentation divides a building into distinct zones that contain fire and smoke for a defined period, allowing occupants to evacuate, limiting property damage, and providing safe zones for defend-in-place strategies.

防火分隔将建筑划分为独立区域，可在规定时间内阻挡火势和烟雾蔓延，保障人员疏散，减少财产损失，并为就地避难策略提供安全区域。

Compartment Sizing

防火分区尺寸

IBC (US):

No explicit maximum compartment size for most occupancies (controlled by construction type and area per floor)
I-2 smoke compartments: max 2090 m² (22,500 ft²) per smoke compartment per IBC 407.5.1
I-3 smoke compartments: max 2090 m² (22,500 ft²) per IBC 408.6

BS 9999 (UK): Maximum compartment sizes by risk profile:

Risk Profile	Max Compartment Floor Area	Max Dimension
A1 (low risk)	8,000 m²	No limit
A2	4,000 m²	No limit
B1	2,000 m²	No limit
B2	1,000 m²	No limit
C1 (sleeping, low risk)	2,000 m²	No limit
C2	1,000 m²	No limit
C3 (high dependency)	1,000 m²	No limit

Approved Document B (England & Wales): Maximum compartment sizes by purpose group:

Purpose Group	Height < 18 m	Height >= 18 m
Residential (flats)	No limit*	No limit*
Office	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
Shop/commercial	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
Assembly/recreation	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
Industrial	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
Storage	1,000 m²	1,000 m²

(*Flats: each dwelling is a compartment; common corridor/stair protected)

IBC（美国）：

大多数使用性质的建筑无明确的最大防火分区面积（由建筑结构类型和每层面积控制）
I-2类防烟分区：根据IBC 407.5.1，每个防烟分区最大面积为2090 m²（22,500 ft²）
I-3类防烟分区：根据IBC 408.6，最大面积为2090 m²（22,500 ft²）

BS 9999（英国）： 按风险等级划分的最大防火分区面积：

风险等级	最大防火分区建筑面积	最大尺寸
A1（低风险）	8,000 m²	无限制
A2	4,000 m²	无限制
B1	2,000 m²	无限制
B2	1,000 m²	无限制
C1（住宿，低风险）	2,000 m²	无限制
C2	1,000 m²	无限制
C3（高依赖度）	1,000 m²	无限制

Approved Document B（英格兰及威尔士）： 按用途组别划分的最大防火分区面积：

用途组别	建筑高度 < 18 m	建筑高度 >= 18 m
住宅（公寓）	无限制*	无限制*
办公	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
商业/商铺	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
集会/娱乐	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
工业	2,000 m²	2,000 m²
仓储	1,000 m²	1,000 m²

（*公寓：每套住宅为一个防火分区；公共走廊/楼梯受保护）

Fire-Rated Construction Types

耐火建筑构件类型

Fire Barrier (IBC 707):

Continuous from floor slab to underside of floor or roof slab above (deck, not ceiling)
Used for: occupancy separation, exit enclosures, shaft enclosures, horizontal exits
Supports: must be supported by construction with equal or greater FRR
Continuity: all joints, penetrations, and openings must be protected

Fire Partition (IBC 708):

May terminate at underside of a fire-rated floor/ceiling or roof/ceiling assembly
Used for: dwelling unit separation, sleeping unit separation, corridor walls
Less stringent than fire barrier (can stop at ceiling if ceiling is rated)

Fire Wall (IBC 706):

Structurally independent (remains standing if structure on either side collapses)
Extends from foundation to roof (through roof unless roof is fire-rated)
Creates separate buildings for code purposes
Rating: 2 hr (A, B, E, F-2, M, R, S-2, U), 3 hr (F-1, H-3/4/5, S-1), 4 hr (H-1, H-2)

Smoke Barrier (IBC 709):

Continuous membrane from floor to floor, outside wall to outside wall
Smoke-tight construction with smoke dampers at duct penetrations
1-hour minimum fire resistance
Used for: I-2 smoke compartments, I-3 smoke compartments, ambulatory care smoke compartments

防火隔墙（IBC 707）：

从楼板连续延伸至上层楼板或屋面板的底部（结构板，而非吊顶）
适用场景：使用功能分隔、出口围护、竖井围护、水平出口
支撑要求：必须由耐火等级（FRR）不低于自身的结构支撑
连续性要求：所有接缝、贯穿件和开口均需进行防火保护

防火分隔墙（IBC 708）：

可终止于具备耐火等级的楼板/吊顶或屋顶/吊顶组合体的底部
适用场景：住宅单元分隔、卧室单元分隔、走廊墙体
要求低于防火隔墙（若吊顶具备耐火等级，可终止于吊顶处）

防火墙（IBC 706）：

结构独立（即使两侧建筑结构倒塌，防火墙仍保持站立）
从基础延伸至屋顶（穿通屋顶，除非屋顶具备耐火等级）
在规范层面可将建筑划分为多个独立建筑
耐火等级：2小时（A、B、E、F-2、M、R、S-2、U类）、3小时（F-1、H-3/4/5、S-1类）、4小时（H-1、H-2类）

挡烟隔墙（IBC 709）：

从楼板到楼板、从外墙到外墙的连续围护结构
防烟结构，管道贯穿处设置排烟防火阀
最低1小时耐火极限
适用场景：I-2类防烟分区、I-3类防烟分区、门诊护理类防烟分区

Fire Door Ratings

防火门等级

IBC/UL system (US):

Application	Door Rating	Wall Rating
Fire wall opening	3 hr	4 hr
Fire wall opening	1.5 hr	2 hr
Fire barrier -- exit enclosure	1.5 hr	2 hr
Fire barrier -- exit enclosure	1 hr	1 hr
Fire barrier -- occupancy separation	1.5 hr	2 hr
Fire barrier -- occupancy separation	0.75 hr	1 hr
Fire partition -- corridor	0.33 hr	0.5 hr
Fire partition -- corridor	0.33 hr	1 hr
Smoke barrier	0.33 hr	1 hr

British Standard / European system:

Designation	Integrity (min)	Insulation (min)	Typical Use
FD30	30	--	Corridor doors, flat entrance doors
FD30S	30 + smoke	--	Corridor doors (with smoke seal)
FD60	60	--	Stairway doors, compartment walls
FD60S	60 + smoke	--	Protected lobby doors
FD90	90	--	High-risk areas
FD120	120	--	Special applications
FD30/FD60 + insulation	30/60	30/60	Where insulation criterion is needed

IBC/UL体系（美国）：

应用场景	门扇耐火等级	墙体耐火等级
防火墙开口	3小时	4小时
防火墙开口	1.5小时	2小时
防火隔墙——出口围护	1.5小时	2小时
防火隔墙——出口围护	1小时	1小时
防火隔墙——使用功能分隔	1.5小时	2小时
防火隔墙——使用功能分隔	0.75小时	1小时
防火分隔墙——走廊	0.33小时	0.5小时
防火分隔墙——走廊	0.33小时	1小时
挡烟隔墙	0.33小时	1小时

英国标准/欧洲体系：

型号	最低完整性（分钟）	最低隔热性（分钟）	典型应用
FD30	30	--	走廊门、公寓入户门
FD30S	30 + 防烟	--	走廊门（带防烟密封）
FD60	60	--	楼梯间门、防火分隔墙门
FD60S	60 + 防烟	--	受保护前室门
FD90	90	--	高风险区域
FD120	120	--	特殊应用场景
FD30/FD60+隔热型	30/60	30/60	有隔热性要求的场景

Fire Door Furniture and Ironmongery

防火门五金配件

Self-closing device: overhead closer (EN 1154 / UL 228) mandatory on all fire doors; min closing force per accessibility requirements
Intumescent strips: 10 mm x 4 mm or 15 mm x 4 mm strips in rebate or door edge; expand at 150-200°C to seal gap between door and frame
Smoke seals (cold smoke): flexible blade or brush seal at head and jambs; required for FD__S designations and IBC smoke doors
Hinges: steel butt hinges, minimum 3 per door leaf; no rising butts on fire doors
Locks and latches: must not compromise fire rating; typically tested as part of fire door assembly
Hold-open devices: electromagnetic hold-open connected to fire alarm; releases on alarm or power failure; door closer then closes door
Panic hardware: fire-rated panic bar or touchpad (IBC requires on assembly and educational exit doors for occupant loads > 50)

自闭装置：所有防火门必须安装闭门器（EN 1154 / UL 228）；关闭力需满足无障碍设计最低要求
膨胀条：在门槽或门扇边缘安装10 mm×4 mm或15 mm×4 mm的膨胀条；在150-200°C时膨胀，密封门扇与门框之间的缝隙
防烟条（冷烟）：在门顶和侧边安装柔性叶片或毛刷密封条；FD__S系列防火门及IBC防烟门必须安装
合页：钢质平开合页，每扇门至少3个；防火门不得使用升降合页
锁具与插销：不得降低耐火等级；通常作为防火门组件的一部分进行测试
常开装置：与火灾报警系统联动的电磁常开装置；报警或断电时释放，由闭门器关闭门扇
应急推闩：耐火级别的推杠或触摸式推闩（IBC要求使用人数超过50人的集会类和教育类建筑的出口门必须安装）

Glazed Fire Barriers

玻璃防火隔墙

Types of fire-rated glass:

Type	Integrity	Insulation	Max Rating	Applications
Wired glass (6 mm)	Yes	No	60-90 min	Obsolete in many jurisdictions; limited to small vision panels
Borosilicate glass	Yes	No	60-120 min	Fire-rated vision panels, limited area
Ceramic glass	Yes	No	60-180 min	Fire screens, spandrel panels, large panels
Intumescent gel glass	Yes	Yes	30-120 min	Full fire barriers, corridor walls, lobby screens

Integrity-only glass prevents flame and hot gas passage but radiates heat. Maximum area limited to prevent radiant heat exposure on escape routes.
Insulating glass (intumescent gel between layers) blocks both flame and radiant heat. Can be used for full fire barriers including in escape routes.

防火玻璃类型：

类型	完整性	隔热性	最高耐火等级	应用场景
夹丝玻璃（6 mm）	是	否	60-90分钟	在许多司法管辖区已淘汰；仅用于小型观察窗
硼硅酸盐玻璃	是	否	60-120分钟	防火观察窗，面积受限
微晶玻璃	是	否	60-180分钟	防火屏、拱肩板、大型面板
膨胀凝胶玻璃	是	是	30-120分钟	全高防火隔墙、走廊墙体、大堂屏风

仅具备完整性的玻璃可阻挡火焰和热气通过，但会辐射热量。其最大面积受限，以防止疏散路径上的热辐射暴露。
隔热型玻璃（层间夹有膨胀凝胶）可同时阻挡火焰和热辐射，可用于包括疏散路径在内的全高防火隔墙。

Firestopping (Penetration Seals)

防火封堵（贯穿密封）

Every penetration through a fire-rated assembly must be sealed with a listed firestop system:

Pipe penetrations: intumescent pipe collars (combustible pipes -- PVC, PE, PP); mineral wool + intumescent sealant (metal pipes with insulation)
Cable penetrations: intumescent block, putty, or pillows; cable transit frames for large cable bundles
Duct penetrations: fire damper (integrity only) or fire/smoke damper (integrity + smoke sealing); rated to match wall rating
Structural joints: fire-rated joint sealant (silicone or intumescent) with mineral wool backing

Cavity barriers:

Required in concealed spaces (above ceilings, within walls) to prevent unseen fire spread
Maximum distance between cavity barriers: 20 m in any direction (ADB); IBC Section 718 requires draft stopping in floor/ceiling spaces of combustible construction at max 280 m² (3,000 ft²)
At compartment wall/floor junctions extending into concealed spaces

所有贯穿耐火构件的部位都必须采用经过认证的防火封堵系统进行密封：

管道贯穿： 膨胀式管道阻火圈（用于可燃管道——PVC、PE、PP）；矿物棉+膨胀密封胶（用于带保温的金属管道）
电缆贯穿： 膨胀块、防火泥或防火枕；大型电缆束采用电缆穿隔框架
风管贯穿： 防火阀（仅保证完整性）或防火排烟阀（完整性+防烟密封）；耐火等级与墙体匹配
结构接缝： 带矿物棉衬底的耐火接缝密封胶（硅酮或膨胀型）

空腔阻隔：

隐蔽空间（吊顶上方、墙体内部）必须设置，以防止火势隐蔽蔓延
空腔阻隔的最大间距：任意方向20 m（ADB）；IBC第718条要求，可燃结构的楼板/吊顶空间内，阻火隔断的最大面积为280 m²（3,000 ft²）
在防火分隔墙/楼板的交接处，需延伸至隐蔽空间内部

Section 3: Means of Egress Design

第3节：疏散设计

Number of Escape Stairs

疏散楼梯数量

IBC (US):

Based on occupancy, travel distance, and floor area
Minimum 2 exits from each floor (with single-exit exceptions per Table 1006.2.1 for small, low-hazard spaces)
3 exits for 501-1,000 occupants per floor; 4 exits for > 1,000

BS 9999 / Approved Document B (UK):

Single stair permitted for buildings up to 11 m (ADB) in certain occupancies with limited floor area and travel distance
Number of stairs based on maximum travel distance from any point to nearest stair AND stair capacity calculation

IBC（美国）：

根据使用性质、疏散距离和楼层面积确定
每层至少2个出口（小型低危险空间可根据表1006.2.1设置单出口）
每层人数501-1000人时需3个出口；超过1000人时需4个出口

BS 9999 / Approved Document B（英国）：

高度不超过11 m的建筑（ADB），若使用性质特定、楼层面积和疏散距离有限，可设置单部楼梯
楼梯数量根据任意点到最近楼梯的最大疏散距离以及楼梯通行能力计算确定

Travel Distances -- International Comparison

疏散距离——国际对比

IBC (US), sprinklered:

Occupancy	One Direction	Any Direction
A	--	76 m (250 ft)
B	--	91 m (300 ft)
R	--	76 m (250 ft)
S-2	--	122 m (400 ft)

BS 9999 (UK), Risk Profile B1 (office, normal risk):

Escape Routes	One Direction Only	More Than One Direction
Unsprinklered	18 m	45 m
Sprinklered	27 m	60 m

Approved Document B (England & Wales):

Purpose Group	One Direction	More Than One Direction
Office (2b)	18 m	45 m
Shop (4)	18 m	45 m
Assembly (5)	15 m	32 m
Residential (flat)	9 m (7.5 m corridor)	-- (single direction to stair in flat corridor)
Industrial (6)	25 m	45 m
Storage (7a)	25 m	45 m

Comparison note: UK travel distances are significantly shorter than IBC because the UK does not generally mandate sprinklers in the same way as the IBC (sprinkler credit is a specific extension of the base distance, not a near-universal requirement). When sprinklers are provided, UK distances increase but still remain shorter than IBC.

IBC（美国），设喷淋系统：

使用性质	单向疏散	双向疏散
A	--	76 m（250 ft）
B	--	91 m（300 ft）
R	--	76 m（250 ft）
S-2	--	122 m（400 ft）

BS 9999（英国），风险等级B1（办公，普通风险）：

疏散路线	仅单向疏散	多向疏散
未设喷淋	18 m	45 m
设喷淋	27 m	60 m

Approved Document B（英格兰及威尔士）：

用途组别	单向疏散	多向疏散
办公（2b类）	18 m	45 m
商业（4类）	18 m	45 m
集会（5类）	15 m	32 m
住宅（公寓）	9 m（走廊内7.5 m）	--（公寓走廊内为单向到楼梯）
工业（6类）	25 m	45 m
仓储（7a类）	25 m	45 m

对比说明： 英国的疏散距离明显短于IBC，因为英国不像IBC那样普遍强制要求安装喷淋系统（喷淋带来的疏散距离放宽是基础距离的特定延长，而非近乎通用的要求）。若设置喷淋系统，英国的疏散距离会有所增加，但仍短于IBC的要求。

Stair Width Calculation

楼梯宽度计算

IBC method:

7.6 mm (0.3 in) per occupant for stairways
5.1 mm (0.2 in) per occupant for other egress components
Minimum stair width: 1118 mm (44 in) for 50+ occupants; 914 mm (36 in) for < 50 occupants

BS 9999 / ADB method:

Stair width based on number of persons per floor and number of floors served
ADB Table 5: for simultaneous evacuation, stair width accommodates total population minus ground floor
BS 9999 Table 13: discharge rates per unit width (0.6 m per person per minute on stairs at 1100 mm width)

Minimum stair widths:

Standard	Minimum Width
IBC (general)	1118 mm (44 in)
IBC (< 50 occupants)	914 mm (36 in)
ADB / BS 9999	1050 mm (between walls, up to 150 persons/floor)
ADB / BS 9999	1100 mm (151-200 persons/floor)
DIN 18065 (Germany)	1000 mm (residential); 1200 mm (public)

IBC计算方法：

楼梯宽度按每人7.6 mm（0.3 英寸）计算
其他疏散构件宽度按每人5.1 mm（0.2 英寸）计算
最小楼梯宽度：使用人数≥50人时为1118 mm（44 英寸）；使用人数<50人时为914 mm（36 英寸）

BS 9999 / ADB计算方法：

楼梯宽度根据每层人数和服务楼层数确定
ADB表5：对于同时疏散策略，楼梯宽度需容纳除底层外的总人数
BS 9999表13：单位宽度疏散流量（宽度为1100 mm的楼梯，每分钟每米宽度可通过0.6人）

最小楼梯宽度：

标准	最小宽度
IBC（通用）	1118 mm（44 英寸）
IBC（<50人）	914 mm（36 英寸）
ADB / BS 9999	1050 mm（墙间净距，每层≤150人）
ADB / BS 9999	1100 mm（每层151-200人）
DIN 18065（德国）	1000 mm（住宅）；1200 mm（公共建筑）

Protected Stairways

封闭楼梯间

Escape stairs must be enclosed in fire-rated construction to protect occupants during evacuation:

IBC exit stairway enclosure (Section 1023):
- 1-hour enclosure for 4 or fewer stories connected
- 2-hour enclosure for more than 4 stories connected
- Opening protectives: 1-hour doors for 2-hour enclosure; 0.75-hour or 1-hour doors for 1-hour enclosure
ADB protected stairway:
- Walls: fire resistance equal to building's fire resistance period (30-120 min depending on height)
- Doors: FD30S minimum (self-closing, smoke-sealed)
- Ventilation: 1.0 m² natural ventilator at top of stair (or mechanical pressurization) for buildings > 18 m

疏散楼梯必须采用耐火结构封闭，以在疏散过程中保护人员安全：

IBC出口楼梯围护（第1023条）：
- 连接4层及以下楼层时，围护结构耐火极限为1小时
- 连接4层以上楼层时，围护结构耐火极限为2小时
- 开口保护：2小时耐火极限的围护结构采用1小时耐火等级的门；1小时耐火极限的围护结构采用0.75小时或1小时耐火等级的门
ADB封闭楼梯间：
- 墙体：耐火极限与建筑耐火时间一致（根据建筑高度为30-120分钟）
- 门扇：最低为FD30S（自闭、防烟）
- 通风：高度超过18 m的建筑，楼梯顶部需设置1.0 m²的自然通风口（或机械加压系统）

Firefighting Shafts

消防竖井

Required in buildings > 18 m height (UK) or > 23 m / 75 ft (IBC high-rise):

Fire service elevator (fire lift): min 1100 x 1400 mm cab (UK BS EN 81-72); primary power + secondary (generator) power; waterproof elevator pit and landing; controls override to fire service operation
Firefighting lobby: min 5 m² (UK); fire-rated enclosure at every floor (2-hour walls, FD60S doors); contains dry/wet riser outlet
Dry riser: 100 mm diameter rising main with inlet at ground level and outlets at every floor; buildings 18-60 m height (UK). Fire service connects pumping appliance at ground level.
Wet riser: permanently charged pressurized system; buildings > 60 m (UK) or per IBC standpipe requirements (Class I in high-rise exit stairways)

高度超过18 m的建筑（英国）或高度超过23 m / 75 ft的建筑（IBC高层建筑）必须设置：

消防电梯： 轿厢最小尺寸为1100×1400 mm（英国BS EN 81-72）；主电源+备用（发电机）电源；电梯基坑和层站防水；控制面板可切换至消防操作模式
消防前室： 最小面积5 m²（英国）；每层均设耐火围护结构（墙体耐火2小时，门为FD60S）；设有干式/湿式消防竖管出口
干式消防竖管： 直径100 mm的竖管，底部在地面设进水口，每层设出水口；适用于高度18-60 m的建筑（英国）。消防队在地面连接消防水泵加压供水。
湿式消防竖管： 常年充压的系统；适用于高度超过60 m的建筑（英国）或符合IBC竖管要求的建筑（高层建筑出口楼梯间设I类竖管）

Scissor Stairs

剪刀楼梯

Two interlocking stairs within a single structural shaft, separated by fire-rated construction:

Each stair is independently fire-rated (1 or 2 hr) from the other
Separate smoke lobbies at each level for each stair
Common in high-rise residential where site constraints prevent two separate stair cores
IBC: scissor stairs are treated as separate exits only if each has independent exit discharge and the separating construction meets exit enclosure requirements
UK/BS 9999: accepted where demonstrated that failure of one stair does not compromise the other

在同一结构竖井内设置的两部交错楼梯，由耐火结构分隔：

每部楼梯均有独立的耐火等级（1或2小时），与另一部分隔
每层每部楼梯均设独立的防烟前室
常用于场地受限无法设置两个独立楼梯核心筒的高层住宅
IBC规定：只有当每部楼梯都有独立的出口疏散通道，且分隔结构满足出口围护要求时，剪刀楼梯才可视为独立出口
英国/BS 9999：若能证明一部楼梯失效不会影响另一部，则可采用

Disabled Refuge Areas

残疾人避难区

Areas of temporary safety for persons unable to use stairs:

Location: at each floor landing of every escape stair (IBC Section 1009.3; ADB Section 4)
Size: minimum 900 x 1400 mm (IBC: 760 x 1220 mm / 30 x 48 in clear floor space) per wheelchair space; clear of stair discharge path
Communication: two-way intercom to fire command center / building management (IBC Section 1009.8)
Number: one per stair per floor minimum; two per floor if > 200 occupants on that floor
Not required in fully sprinklered buildings per IBC exception (occupants use elevator for evacuation under emergency evacuation plan)
Signage: International Symbol of Accessibility + "Area of Rescue Assistance"

为无法使用楼梯的人员提供的临时安全区域：

位置：每部疏散楼梯的每层平台处（IBC第1009.3条；ADB第4节）
尺寸：每个轮椅位最小面积为900×1400 mm（IBC要求净面积为760×1220 mm / 30×48 英寸）；需避开楼梯疏散路径
通讯设施：与消防指挥中心/建筑管理室连通的双向对讲机（IBC第1009.8条）
数量：每层每部楼梯至少设1个；每层人数超过200人时设2个
IBC例外条款：全喷淋建筑无需设置（人员可根据应急疏散计划使用电梯疏散）
标识：国际无障碍符号+“救援协助区”字样

Evacuation Strategies

疏散策略

Simultaneous evacuation:

All occupants evacuate immediately upon alarm
Standard for most building types (office, retail, education)
Total evacuation time must be less than available safe egress time (ASET > RSET)

Phased evacuation:

Fire floor and floor immediately above evacuate first
Remaining floors evacuate in sequence (above fire floor, then below)
Common in high-rise office buildings; requires voice/alarm communication system with zoned messaging
Requires at minimum: sprinklers, smoke detection, compartmentation between floors, voice alarm

Progressive horizontal evacuation:

Occupants move horizontally through fire/smoke barriers to an adjacent compartment on the same floor
Standard for I-2 (hospitals) and I-3 (detention) -- defend-in-place
Each smoke compartment must have capacity to hold its own occupants plus occupants from one adjacent compartment
Smoke compartment max 2090 m² (22,500 ft²) per IBC 407.5.1

Stay-put (residential):

UK residential strategy: occupants in flats not affected by fire remain in their flats (each flat is a fire compartment)
Fire-affected flat occupants escape via protected corridor and stair
Requires: fire-rated flat entrance doors (FD30S), fire-rated corridor/lobby walls, fire-rated stair enclosure, automatic detection in common areas
Post-Grenfell review: simultaneous evacuation capability being required alongside stay-put as a backup (Building Safety Act 2022)

同时疏散：

所有人员在报警后立即疏散
大多数建筑类型的标准策略（办公、零售、教育）
总疏散时间必须小于可用安全疏散时间（ASET > RSET）

阶段疏散：

起火层及上一层首先疏散
其余楼层按顺序疏散（先起火层以上，再起火层以下）
常见于高层办公楼；需具备分区广播功能的语音/报警通信系统
最低要求：喷淋系统、烟雾探测、楼层间防火分隔、语音报警

渐进式水平疏散：

人员通过防火/挡烟隔墙水平移动到同一楼层的相邻防火分区
I-2类（医院）和I-3类（拘留所）的标准策略——就地避难
每个防烟分区必须能容纳自身人员加上一个相邻防烟分区的人员
根据IBC 407.5.1，防烟分区最大面积为2090 m²（22,500 ft²）

原地待命（住宅）：

英国住宅策略：未受火灾影响的公寓内人员留在自家公寓内（每套公寓为一个防火分区）
受火灾影响的公寓人员通过受保护的走廊和楼梯疏散
要求：耐火级别的公寓入户门（FD30S）、耐火的走廊/前室墙体、耐火的楼梯围护、公共区域自动探测系统
格伦费尔事件后审查：要求在原地待命策略之外，同时具备同时疏散能力作为备用（《2022年建筑安全法》）

Section 4: Structural Fire Protection

第4节：结构防火

Fire Resistance Periods

耐火时间

IBC Table 601 (see building-codes SKILL.md Section 2 for full table)

ADB / BS 9999 minimum fire resistance periods:

Building Height	Residential	Non-residential
Up to 5 m	30 min	30 min
Up to 11 m	30 min	60 min
Up to 18 m	60 min	60 min
Up to 30 m	90 min	90 min
Over 30 m	120 min	120 min

IBC表601（完整表格见building-codes SKILL.md第2节）

ADB / BS 9999最低耐火时间：

建筑高度	住宅	非住宅
≤5 m	30分钟	30分钟
≤11 m	30分钟	60分钟
≤18 m	60分钟	60分钟
≤30 m	90分钟	90分钟
>30 m	120分钟	120分钟

Protection Methods

防火保护方法

Concrete cover to reinforcement:

Fire resistance achieved by minimum concrete cover over steel reinforcement
20 mm cover: approximately 1 hour FRR (depends on member type, loading)
25 mm cover: approximately 1.5 hours
35 mm cover: approximately 2 hours
50 mm cover: approximately 3-4 hours
Governed by Eurocode 2-1-2, ACI 216.1, or BS 8110 Part 2

Intumescent coatings (thin-film for structural steel):

Applied as paint-like coating (0.25-5 mm dry film thickness)
Expands 20-50 times original thickness at 200-250°C, forming insulating char
Fire ratings achievable: 30-120 minutes (up to 180 min for some products)
Advantages: thin profile preserves exposed steel aesthetic; can be applied off-site or on-site
Limitations: requires controlled application conditions; some products vulnerable to humidity; maintenance access needed for recoating (25-year typical life)
Specification: dry film thickness (DFT) per fire rating, section factor (Hp/A) of the steel member; higher Hp/A (thinner steel) requires thicker coating

Board encasement:

Calcium silicate board (e.g., Promat): 15-60 mm thickness for 30-240 min FRR
Vermiculite/gypsum board: 12-50 mm thickness for 30-180 min FRR
Advantages: precise, consistent, factory-quality finish; can be installed in any weather
Limitations: visible box profile around structural members; time-consuming installation for complex geometries

Spray-applied fire protection (SFRM):

Cementitious (Portland cement + mineral aggregate): density 240-350 kg/m³
Mineral fibre (slag wool + cement binder): density 190-320 kg/m³
Typical thickness: 10-40 mm for 1-3 hours
Advantages: fastest application method, conforms to complex geometries, lowest cost per hour of fire rating
Limitations: rough finish (must be concealed above ceilings), overspray containment, cannot be applied below ~4°C, fragile if exposed

Concrete encasement (full):

Steel members fully encased in concrete
Provides 2-4 hours FRR depending on cover thickness
Heavy, expensive, rarely used for fire protection alone in modern construction
Still common where structural composite action (steel-concrete) is desired

钢筋混凝土保护层：

通过钢筋外侧的最小混凝土保护层厚度实现耐火性能
20 mm保护层：约1小时耐火等级（取决于构件类型、荷载）
25 mm保护层：约1.5小时
35 mm保护层：约2小时
50 mm保护层：约3-4小时
遵循Eurocode 2-1-2、ACI 216.1或BS 8110第2部分

膨胀型防火涂料（钢结构用薄膜型）：

以类似涂料的形式施工（干膜厚度0.25-5 mm）
在200-250°C时膨胀至原厚度的20-50倍，形成隔热炭层
可实现的耐火等级：30-120分钟（部分产品可达180分钟）
优点：厚度薄，可保留外露钢结构的美学效果；可工厂预制或现场施工
局限性：施工条件要求可控；部分产品易受湿度影响；需预留维护通道以便重涂（典型使用寿命25年）
规格要求：根据耐火等级、钢构件的截面系数（Hp/A）确定干膜厚度（DFT）；Hp/A越高（钢材越薄），所需涂层越厚

板材包覆：

硅酸钙板（如Promat）：厚度15-60 mm，耐火时间30-240分钟
蛭石/石膏板：厚度12-50 mm，耐火时间30-180分钟
优点：精度高、性能稳定、工厂级饰面；可在任何天气条件下安装
局限性：结构构件外会形成明显的箱形轮廓；复杂几何形状的安装耗时较长

喷涂型防火材料（SFRM）：

水泥基（波特兰水泥+矿物骨料）：密度240-350 kg/m³
矿物纤维（矿渣棉+水泥粘结剂）：密度190-320 kg/m³
典型厚度：耐火1-3小时需10-40 mm
优点：施工速度最快，可适配复杂几何形状，单位耐火时间成本最低
局限性：表面粗糙（必须隐藏在吊顶上方），需防止过喷，环境温度低于约4°C时无法施工，外露时易损坏

混凝土全包覆：

钢构件完全被混凝土包裹
根据保护层厚度可提供2-4小时的耐火等级
重量大、成本高，现代建筑中很少单独用于防火保护
在需要钢-混凝土组合结构性能的场景中仍较为常见

Mass Timber Fire Design

重型木结构防火设计

Charring method (Eurocode 5-1-2 / NDS/AWC):

Standard charring rate: 0.65 mm/min for softwood (spruce, pine, fir)
Charring rate for glulam/CLT: 0.65-0.70 mm/min
Zero-strength layer: 7 mm below char line (wood heated but not charred has reduced strength)
Effective residual section = original section - char depth - zero-strength layer

Design process:

Determine required fire resistance period (e.g., 90 minutes)
Calculate char depth: 0.65 mm/min × 90 min = 58.5 mm per exposed face
Add zero-strength layer: 58.5 + 7 = 65.5 mm per exposed face
Residual section = original - 65.5 mm per exposed face
Verify structural capacity of residual section under fire load combination (typically dead + 0.5 × live, reduced from ambient design loads)

Type IV-A (encapsulated mass timber):

All mass timber surfaces protected by noncombustible material
Typically 2 layers of 16 mm (5/8 in) Type X gypsum board (32 mm total)
Gypsum provides ~60 minutes protection before charring begins
Total fire resistance = gypsum protection time + residual timber capacity

Type IV-C (exposed mass timber):

Timber may be fully exposed; fire resistance from oversized section alone
Architectural advantage: warm, exposed wood aesthetic
Requires larger timber dimensions to account for full charring

炭化法（Eurocode 5-1-2 / NDS/AWC）：

标准炭化速率：软木（云杉、松木、冷杉）为0.65 mm/分钟
胶合木/正交胶合木（CLT）的炭化速率：0.65-0.70 mm/分钟
零强度层：炭化线以下7 mm（受热但未炭化的木材强度会降低）
有效剩余截面 = 原始截面 - 炭化深度 - 零强度层

设计流程：

确定所需耐火时间（如90分钟）
计算炭化深度：每个暴露面为0.65 mm/分钟 × 90分钟 = 58.5 mm
加上零强度层：每个暴露面为58.5 + 7 = 65.5 mm
剩余截面 = 原始截面 - 每个暴露面65.5 mm
验证剩余截面在火灾荷载组合下的结构承载力（通常为恒载+0.5倍活载，低于常温设计荷载）

IV-A型（包覆式重型木结构）：

所有重型木结构表面均由不燃材料保护
通常为2层16 mm（5/8英寸）的X型石膏板（总厚度32 mm）
石膏板可提供约60分钟的保护，之后木材开始炭化
总耐火时间 = 石膏板保护时间 + 剩余木材的承载能力

IV-C型（外露式重型木结构）：

木材可完全外露；耐火性能仅通过加大构件尺寸实现
建筑优势：温暖的外露木材美学效果
需要更大的木材尺寸以抵消完全炭化的影响

Section 5: Smoke Control

第5节：控烟系统

Purpose

作用

Smoke is the primary cause of death in building fires. Smoke control systems maintain tenable conditions on escape routes and in occupied spaces during the time needed for evacuation.

烟雾是建筑火灾中致人死亡的主要原因。控烟系统可在疏散所需时间内，维持疏散路径和人员占用空间的安全生存条件。

Natural Smoke Ventilation (NSHEV -- Natural Smoke and Heat Exhaust Ventilation)

自然排烟排热通风（NSHEV）

Sizing:

General rule: free ventilation area = 5% of floor area of the smoke reservoir, or 1.5 m² per 200 m² of floor area (whichever is greater)
Smoke reservoir depth: minimum 3 m (10 ft) from ceiling to bottom of smoke layer (maintain clear layer height above 2.5 m for tenability)
Inlet air: low-level openings at least equal in area to exhaust openings
Location: at highest point of smoke reservoir (roof vents, high-level windows)

Automatic opening:

Actuated by: smoke detection (most common), fusible link (thermal), fire alarm signal
Override: manual release at ground level and adjacent to ventilator
Fail-safe: opens on power failure (unless wind/weather concerns require closed default)

尺寸计算：

通用规则：有效通风面积 = 烟仓建筑面积的5%，或每200 m²建筑面积对应1.5 m²（取较大值）
烟仓深度：从吊顶到烟层底部的最小距离为3 m（10 ft）（需维持2.5 m以上的清晰层高度以保证安全）
进风：低位开口的面积至少与排烟口面积相等
位置：位于烟仓的最高处（屋顶通风口、高侧窗）

自动开启：

触发方式：烟雾探测（最常见）、易熔合金（热敏）、火灾报警信号
手动控制：地面和通风口附近设手动开启装置
失效安全：断电时自动开启（除非防风/天气原因要求默认关闭）

Mechanical Smoke Extract

机械排烟

Extract rate: determined by fire engineering analysis based on design fire size and smoke production rate
Typical rates: 4-10 air changes per hour for corridor extract; higher for atrium and large-volume spaces
Fans: rated for 300°C for 60 minutes (minimum) or 400°C for 120 minutes (for extended fire exposure); per EN 12101-3
Ductwork: fire-rated or within fire-rated shaft; dampers at compartment boundaries
Make-up air: must be provided to replace extracted smoke; typically low-level inlets at 75-80% of extract rate to maintain slight negative pressure in fire zone

排烟量：根据设计火灾规模和产烟速率，通过消防工程分析确定
典型排烟量：走廊排烟为每小时4-10次换气；中庭和大空间建筑需更高换气次数
风机：最低要求为300°C下连续运行60分钟，或400°C下连续运行120分钟（用于长时间火灾暴露场景）；符合EN 12101-3标准
风管：耐火型或设置在耐火竖井内；防火分区边界处设防火阀
补风：必须提供补风以补充排出的烟气；通常采用低位进风口，补风量为排烟量的75-80%，以维持火灾区域的微负压

Stair and Lobby Pressurization

楼梯与前室加压送风

Maintains positive pressure in escape stairs and lobbies to prevent smoke infiltration
Pressure differential: 50 Pa (0.2 in w.g.) with all doors closed (BS EN 12101-6); 12.5 Pa minimum, 87 Pa maximum (IBC)
Air velocity through open door: 0.75 m/s minimum (some codes require 1.0 m/s) to resist smoke flow
Fan sizing: accounts for leakage through closed doors, walls, and when one door is open on the fire floor
Door opening force: must not exceed 133 N (30 lbf) at the door handle with pressurization system operating (IBC 1010.1.3)
Compensation: variable-speed fans or pressure-relief dampers to adjust for doors opening/closing

在疏散楼梯和前室维持正压，防止烟雾渗入
压差：所有门关闭时为50 Pa（0.2 英寸水柱）（BS EN 12101-6）；IBC要求最低12.5 Pa，最高87 Pa
开门时的门洞风速：最低0.75 m/s（部分规范要求1.0 m/s），以阻挡烟雾流入
风机选型：需考虑关闭的门和墙体的漏风量，以及起火层有一扇门开启时的漏风量
开门力：加压系统运行时，门把手处的开门力不得超过133 N（30 磅力）（IBC 1010.1.3）
补偿措施：采用变速风机或泄压阀，以适应门的开关状态变化

Smoke Curtains and Fire Shutters

挡烟垂壁与防火卷帘

Smoke curtains (fixed or automatic):

Fabric barriers descending from ceiling to contain smoke within a defined reservoir
Deployed by: gravity (fail-safe), motor-driven from smoke detection signal
Drop time: typically 30-60 seconds to full deployment
Rating: per EN 12101-1 (D class for ambient smoke barriers, DH class for hot smoke)

Fire shutters:

Steel or composite rolling/sliding shutters providing fire separation
Rating: 1-4 hours (integrity); some provide insulation rating
Deployed automatically on fire alarm; manual override required
Used where fire doors are impractical (wide openings, service counters, conveyor openings)
Activation: fusible link (thermal), fire alarm signal, or both

挡烟垂壁（固定式或自动式）：

从吊顶垂下的柔性屏障，将烟雾控制在指定烟仓内
释放方式：重力式（失效安全）、烟雾探测信号触发的电动式
下降时间：完全展开通常需要30-60秒
等级：符合EN 12101-1标准（D类为常温挡烟屏障，DH类为高温挡烟屏障）

防火卷帘：

钢质或复合材质的卷/滑式卷帘，用于防火分隔
耐火等级：1-4小时（完整性）；部分产品具备隔热等级
火灾报警时自动释放；需设手动控制装置
用于无法设置防火门的场景（宽开口、服务台、传送带开口）
触发方式：易熔合金（热敏）、火灾报警信号，或两者结合

Atrium Smoke Control

中庭控烟

Atriums require specific smoke control analysis due to large interconnected volumes:

Steady-state plume calculation (simplified):

Mass flow rate of smoke: M = 0.071 × Qc^(1/3) × Z^(5/3) + 0.0018 × Qc (axisymmetric plume, NFPA 92) Where: M = mass flow rate (kg/s), Qc = convective heat release rate (kW), Z = height above fire (m)
For balcony spill plume (fire on floor below atrium, smoke spilling over balcony edge): mass flow rate increases significantly -- approximately 2-3x axisymmetric for same height

Design considerations:

Smoke reservoir at top: minimum 3 m depth
Exhaust: mechanical or natural (powered natural ventilators)
Makeup air: low-level, below smoke layer; velocity < 1.0 m/s to avoid disturbing plume
Plugholing: exhaust point must not extract air from below smoke layer; per NFPA 92 critical exhaust rate calculation
IBC 404.5: requires smoke control per Section 909 in all atriums

由于中庭为大型连通空间，需进行专门的控烟分析：

稳态羽流计算（简化版）：

烟气质量流量：M = 0.071 × Qc^(1/3) × Z^(5/3) + 0.0018 × Qc（轴对称羽流，NFPA 92）其中：M = 质量流量（kg/s），Qc = 对流热释放速率（kW），Z = 火源上方高度（m）
阳台溢出羽流（火灾发生在中庭下方楼层，烟气从阳台边缘溢出）：质量流量显著增加——相同高度下约为轴对称羽流的2-3倍

设计注意事项：

顶部烟仓：最小深度3 m
排烟方式：机械或自然（动力自然通风器）
补风：低位布置，位于烟层下方；风速<1.0 m/s，避免干扰羽流
吸穿现象：排烟口不得从烟层下方吸入空气；需根据NFPA 92的临界排烟量计算验证
IBC 404.5：所有中庭均需按照第909条设置控烟系统

Section 6: Active Fire Protection Systems

第6节：主动消防系统

Automatic Sprinkler Systems

自动喷水灭火系统

Wet-pipe system (most common):

Pipes permanently charged with water under pressure
Activation: individual sprinkler heads actuate when ambient temperature reaches rated temperature (typically 68°C / 155°F for standard; 57°C for residential quick-response)
Response: only heads in the fire zone activate (not all heads)
Coverage: maximum 12 m² (130 ft²) per head for light hazard; 9.3 m² (100 ft²) for ordinary hazard per NFPA 13
Maximum spacing: 4.6 m (15 ft) between heads for standard coverage
Minimum pressure: 0.5 bar (7 psi) at the most remote head
Water density: 4.1 mm/min (0.10 gpm/ft²) light hazard to 8.1 mm/min (0.20 gpm/ft²) ordinary hazard Group 2

Dry-pipe system:

Pipes filled with pressurized air or nitrogen; water released when sprinkler head actuates and air pressure drops
Use: unheated spaces (parking garages, loading docks, freezers) where water would freeze
Delay: 30-60 seconds from head activation to water delivery
Maximum system size: 750 gallons per NFPA 13

Pre-action system:

Requires two triggers: fire detection AND sprinkler head activation
Single interlock: detection activates valve, then head must open
Double interlock: both detection and head activation needed simultaneously
Use: data centers, museums, libraries -- where accidental water damage is unacceptable

Deluge system:

All heads are open (no fusible element); water released to all heads simultaneously when detection system activates
Use: high-hazard areas (aircraft hangars, chemical storage, transformer rooms) requiring immediate total suppression
Requires large water supply

Residential sprinkler system (NFPA 13R / 13D):

NFPA 13R: for residential occupancies up to 4 stories (reduced coverage; sprinklers not required in closets, bathrooms < 5.1 m², attics, garages)
NFPA 13D: for one- and two-family dwellings (further reduced)
Quick-response heads: 57°C (135°F) rated, faster thermal response
Minimum flow: per NFPA 13R/13D hydraulic calculations

湿式系统（最常见）：

管道内常年充有压力水
触发方式：当环境温度达到额定温度时，单个喷淋头启动（标准型通常为68°C / 155°F；住宅快速响应型为57°C）
响应：仅火灾区域的喷淋头启动（并非所有喷头）
保护面积：根据NFPA 13，轻危险级每只喷头最大保护面积为12 m²（130 ft²）；中危险级为9.3 m²（100 ft²）
最大间距：标准覆盖面积下，喷头间距为4.6 m（15 ft）
最低压力：最不利点喷头处压力为0.5 bar（7 psi）
喷水强度：轻危险级为4.1 mm/分钟（0.10 加仑/分钟/平方英尺），中危险级II级为8.1 mm/分钟（0.20 加仑/分钟/平方英尺）

干式系统：

管道内充有压缩空气或氮气；当喷淋头启动、气压下降时，水才会进入管道
适用场景：无供暖的空间（停车场、装卸码头、冷库），防止水结冰
延迟：从喷头启动到出水需30-60秒
最大系统容量：根据NFPA 13为750加仑

预作用系统：

需要两个触发条件：火灾探测 AND 喷淋头启动
单联锁：探测系统启动阀门，之后喷头需开启
双联锁：探测系统和喷头启动需同时满足
适用场景：数据中心、博物馆、图书馆——意外水损不可接受的场所

雨淋系统：

所有喷头均为开式（无易熔元件）；当探测系统启动时，所有喷头同时出水
适用场景：需要立即全面灭火的高危险区域（飞机库、化学品仓库、变压器室）
需要大容量供水

住宅喷淋系统（NFPA 13R / 13D）：

NFPA 13R：适用于4层及以下的住宅建筑（保护面积要求降低；衣橱、小于5.1 m²的卫生间、阁楼、车库无需设置喷淋）
NFPA 13D：适用于单户和双户住宅（要求进一步降低）
快速响应喷头：额定温度57°C（135°F），热响应速度更快
最小流量：根据NFPA 13R/13D的水力计算确定

Fire Detection and Alarm

火灾探测与报警

Detection types:

Type	Detection Method	Response Time	Best For
Ionization smoke	Particle ionization change	Fast (flaming fires)	Offices, corridors (being phased out in some jurisdictions)
Photoelectric smoke	Light scatter/obscuration	Fast (smoldering fires)	Bedrooms, corridors, common areas
Heat (fixed temp)	Fusible element at set temp	Slow (fires must grow)	Kitchens, garages, dusty environments
Heat (rate-of-rise)	Rapid temperature increase	Moderate	Warehouses, mechanical rooms
Aspirating (VESDA)	Air sampling + laser detection	Very fast	Data centers, heritage, clean rooms
Flame (IR/UV)	Infrared/ultraviolet radiation	Very fast	Aircraft hangars, fuel storage
Linear heat	Cable changes resistance with temperature	Moderate	Tunnels, cable trays, conveyor belts

Fire alarm zoning (IBC Section 907):

Manual pull stations: at each exit from each floor
Smoke detectors: in corridors, elevator lobbies, HVAC ducts
Heat detectors: kitchens, mechanical rooms, parking garages
Voice/alarm communication: required in high-rise, assembly > 300, certain E and I occupancies
Zone size: max 1858 m² (20,000 ft²) per zone; max 91 m (300 ft) length per zone; each floor a separate zone

探测类型：

类型	探测原理	响应速度	适用场景
离子感烟	粒子电离变化	快（明火火灾）	办公室、走廊（部分司法管辖区正在逐步淘汰）
光电感烟	光散射/遮光	快（阴燃火灾）	卧室、走廊、公共区域
感温（定温式）	达到设定温度时易熔元件动作	慢（火灾需发展到一定程度）	厨房、车库、多尘环境
感温（差温式）	温度快速上升	中等	仓库、机房
吸气式（VESDA）	空气采样+激光探测	极快	数据中心、历史建筑、洁净室
火焰（红外/紫外）	红外/紫外辐射	极快	飞机库、燃料存储
线性感温	电缆电阻随温度变化	中等	隧道、电缆桥架、传送带

火灾报警分区（IBC第907条）：

手动报警按钮：每层每个出口处均需设置
烟雾探测器：设置在走廊、电梯厅、HVAC风管内
感温探测器：设置在厨房、机房、停车场
语音/报警通信系统：高层建筑、使用人数超过300人的集会类建筑、特定E类和I类使用性质的建筑必须设置
分区大小：每个分区最大面积1858 m²（20,000 ft²）；每个分区最大长度91 m（300 ft）；每层为一个独立分区

Emergency Lighting

应急照明

IBC requirements (Section 1008):

Illumination: minimum 10.8 lux (1 fc) at floor along exit access; minimum 10.8 lux at exit discharge
Duration: minimum 90 minutes from onset of power failure
Power: battery backup or generator

UK / EN requirements (BS 5266-1 / EN 1838):

Escape route lighting: minimum 1 lux at floor level along centerline, 0.5 lux at edges; uniformity ratio max 40:1
Anti-panic (open area) lighting: 0.5 lux at floor level throughout open areas > 60 m²
High-risk task area: minimum 10% of maintained illuminance or 15 lux (whichever is greater)
Duration: 1 hour minimum, 3 hours recommended (and required in many jurisdictions for sleeping accommodations)
Monthly functional test (flick test), annual full-duration test

IBC要求（第1008条）：

照度：疏散通道地面最低照度为10.8 lux（1 英尺烛光）；出口疏散区地面最低照度为10.8 lux
持续时间：从断电开始至少90分钟
供电方式：备用电池或发电机

英国/欧洲标准要求（BS 5266-1 / EN 1838）：

疏散通道照明：中心线地面最低照度为1 lux，边缘为0.5 lux；均匀度最大为40:1
防恐慌（开放区域）照明：面积大于60 m²的开放区域，地面照度为0.5 lux
高危险作业区域：最低照度为正常照度的10%或15 lux（取较高值）
持续时间：最少1小时，推荐3小时（许多司法管辖区要求住宿类建筑为3小时）
每月功能测试（闪烁测试），每年全时长测试

Fire Extinguishers

灭火器

Placement: max 23 m (75 ft) travel distance to nearest extinguisher for Class A (ordinary combustibles); max 15 m (50 ft) for Class B (flammable liquids)
Mounting height: handle at max 1525 mm (60 in) above floor for units

18 kg (40 lb); max 1067 mm (42 in) for units > 18 kg on some interpretations -- verify with AHJ
Types: ABC dry chemical (most common), CO2 (electrical/clean agent), water mist (heritage), wet chemical (commercial kitchens)
Not a substitute for fixed suppression in buildings requiring sprinklers

布置：A类火灾（普通可燃物）的最大疏散距离为23 m（75 ft）；B类火灾（易燃液体）为15 m（50 ft）
安装高度：重量大于18 kg（40 磅）的灭火器，把手距地面最高1525 mm（60 英寸）；部分解释中大于18 kg的灭火器最高为1067 mm（42 英寸）——需向主管部门（AHJ）确认
类型：ABC干粉（最常见）、CO₂（电气/洁净气体）、细水雾（历史建筑）、湿化学（商业厨房）
在要求设置喷淋的建筑中，灭火器不能替代固定灭火系统

Dry and Wet Risers

干式与湿式消防竖管

Dry riser:

Vertical pipe (100 mm / 4 in diameter minimum) with inlet at ground level and outlet valves at each floor
Fire service connects pumping appliance at ground inlet to pressurize system
Required: buildings 18-60 m height (UK ADB); IBC requires standpipe per Section 905
Outlet: 65 mm (2.5 in) landing valve in firefighting lobby or stair landing

Wet riser:

Permanently pressurized with water; fire pump maintains pressure
Required: buildings > 60 m height (UK); IBC Class I standpipe in high-rise stairways
Outlet: 65 mm (2.5 in) valve at each floor landing
Pressure: 7 bar (100 psi) at topmost outlet minimum
Water supply: dedicated fire water tank or connection to reliable public main with adequate flow (typically 1500 L/min for wet riser)

This skill provides general fire and life safety guidance for architectural design. All fire strategies must be developed in coordination with a qualified fire engineer and approved by the authority having jurisdiction. Fire codes and standards are jurisdiction-specific -- verify requirements against the locally adopted edition.

干式消防竖管：

垂直管道（最小直径100 mm / 4 英寸），地面设进水口，每层设出水阀
消防队在地面进水口连接消防水泵，为系统加压
设置要求：高度18-60 m的建筑（英国ADB）；IBC要求根据第905条设置消防竖管
出水口：设置在消防前室或楼梯平台的65 mm（2.5 英寸）层站阀

湿式消防竖管：

常年充水加压；由消防水泵维持压力
设置要求：高度超过60 m的建筑（英国）；IBC要求高层建筑楼梯间设置I类消防竖管
出水口：每层平台设65 mm（2.5 英寸）阀门
压力：最顶层出水口最低压力为7 bar（100 psi）
供水：专用消防水箱或接入流量充足的可靠市政管网（湿式竖管通常为1500 L/分钟）

本技能为建筑设计提供通用的消防与生命安全指导。所有消防策略的制定必须与具备资质的消防工程师协作，并经主管部门批准。消防规范和标准具有司法管辖区特异性——需根据当地采用的版本核实要求。