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Building Services for Architects

面向建筑师的建筑设备知识

Section 1: HVAC Systems for Architects

第1节：面向建筑师的HVAC系统

Mechanical ventilation, heating, and cooling systems are the single largest consumer of building volume after the primary structure. The architect's HVAC decisions at concept stage — system type, plant room location, riser positions, ceiling void depth — are largely irreversible. This section equips architects to make informed selections and understand spatial consequences.
机械通风、供暖与制冷系统是仅次于主体结构的建筑空间最大占用项。建筑师在概念阶段做出的HVAC决策——系统类型、机房位置、立管位置、吊顶空间深度——大多是不可逆的。本节将帮助建筑师做出合理选型，并理解相关的空间影响。

Space Allowances: Mechanical Plant as Percentage of GFA

空间预留：机电设备用房占GFA的比例

Building TypeMechanical Plant (% of GFA)Notes
Commercial office (air-conditioned)5-8%Higher end for prestige/lab-grade
Commercial office (mixed-mode)3-5%Reduced mechanical plant
Hospital / healthcare8-12%Extensive air handling, medical gases, redundancy
Hotel5-7%Central plant + individual room FCUs
Residential (apartments)2-4%Minimal central plant if individual systems
Retail (shopping centre)4-6%Anchor tenants often have own plant
School / university3-5%Varies with ventilation strategy
Laboratory8-15%High air-change rates, fume cupboards, specialist extract
Data centre25-40%Cooling-dominated; massive plant requirement
建筑类型机电设备用房占GFA比例备注
商业办公楼（全空调）5-8%高端/实验室级建筑取上限
商业办公楼（混合模式）3-5%机电设备用房面积减少
医院/医疗建筑8-12%大量空气处理需求、医用气体、冗余设计
酒店5-7%中央机房+独立房间FCU
住宅（公寓）2-4%若采用独立系统，中央机房面积极小
零售商业（购物中心）4-6%主力租户通常自有设备用房
中小学/大学3-5%随通风策略变化
实验室8-15%高换气次数、通风橱、专用排风系统
数据中心25-40%以制冷需求为主；设备用房需求极大

System Type 1: Natural Ventilation

系统类型1：自然通风

  • Description: Relies on wind-driven and buoyancy-driven airflow through operable windows, trickle vents, and/or ventilation shafts. No mechanical cooling. Heating by radiators, underfloor heating, or convectors.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • Floor plate depth: Maximum 12-15m (single-sided ventilation 2.5x floor-to-ceiling height; cross-ventilation up to 5x)
    • No ceiling void for ductwork — 50-150mm for surface pipework/wiring only
    • No AHU plant rooms required
    • Ventilation shafts/stacks may be required for buoyancy-driven ventilation (0.5-1.5m² per stack)
    • Heating plant room: 0.5-1.0% of GFA (boiler room)
  • Energy performance: 0 kWh/m²/yr for ventilation energy (heating energy 30-60 kWh/m²/yr)
  • Noise ratings: NR 25-35 (dependent on external noise — problematic on busy roads)
  • Best-fit building types: Low-rise residential, schools (in temperate climates), low-rise offices in rural/suburban settings
  • Limitations: Cannot control humidity. Dependent on external conditions. Not suitable for deep plans, noisy sites, polluted environments, or climates with sustained temperatures above 28C.
  • 描述：依靠风压和热压驱动气流，通过可开启外窗、通风槽和/或通风井实现通风。无机械制冷。供暖方式为散热器、地板辐射供暖或对流器。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 楼板进深：最大12-15m（单侧通风为层高的2.5倍；穿堂风可达5倍）
    • 无需预留风管吊顶空间——仅需50-150mm用于明装管道/布线
    • 无需AHU机房
    • 热压通风可能需要通风井/通风塔（每个井道0.5-1.5m²）
    • 供暖机房：占GFA的0.5-1.0%（锅炉房）
  • 能耗表现：通风能耗为0 kWh/m²/年（供暖能耗30-60 kWh/m²/年）
  • 噪声等级：NR 25-35（取决于外部噪声——临繁忙道路时存在问题）
  • 最适用建筑类型：低层住宅、（温带气候区的）学校、乡村/郊区的低层办公楼
  • 局限性：无法控制湿度。依赖外部条件。不适用于大进深平面、噪声较大的场地、受污染环境，或持续气温高于28℃的气候区。

System Type 2: Mixed-Mode / Hybrid Ventilation

系统类型2：混合模式/混合通风

  • Description: Natural ventilation used when external conditions permit; mechanical ventilation and cooling activated when natural ventilation is insufficient. Requires automated facade (actuated windows/louvres) and BMS integration.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • Floor plate depth: 12-18m (wider than pure natural vent due to mechanical backup)
    • Ceiling void: 200-400mm (reduced ductwork for supplementary mode)
    • AHU plant rooms: 1.5-3% of GFA
    • Riser shafts: Smaller than fully air-conditioned — 0.5-1.0m² per floor per riser
  • Energy performance: 40-70 kWh/m²/yr (total HVAC energy), 30-50% less than full air conditioning
  • COP: Variable — depends on proportion of mechanical operation
  • Best-fit building types: Offices (progressive clients), universities, libraries, civic buildings
  • Exemplar: The Hive, Worcester (2012); Bloomberg HQ, London (2017)
  • 描述：外部条件允许时采用自然通风；自然通风不足时启动机械通风与制冷。需要自动化立面（电动窗/百叶）与BMS集成。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 楼板进深：12-18m（因有机械备用，比纯自然通风的进深更大）
    • 吊顶空间：200-400mm（辅助模式所需风管减少）
    • AHU机房：占GFA的1.5-3%
    • 立管井：比全空调建筑小——每个立管每层0.5-1.0m²
  • 能耗表现：40-70 kWh/m²/年（HVAC总能耗），比全空调系统低30-50%
  • COP：不固定——取决于机械运行的比例
  • 最适用建筑类型：办公楼（理念先进的业主）、大学、图书馆、市政建筑
  • 参考案例：伍斯特蜂巢图书馆（2012）；伦敦彭博总部（2017）

System Type 3: Fan Coil Units (FCU) + Fresh Air

系统类型3：风机盘管机组（FCU）+ 新风系统

  • Description: Centralised fresh air supply (via AHU) provides ventilation air only (typically 10-12 L/s per person). Individual fan coil units at ceiling level provide local heating/cooling using chilled/hot water from central plant. 4-pipe system (separate heating and cooling circuits) is standard for commercial buildings.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • Ceiling void: 350-500mm (AHU ductwork: 300-400mm rectangular; FCU: 200-300mm high; pipework: 100-150mm)
    • AHU plant room: 2-3% of GFA
    • Chiller plant (roof or basement): 1-2% of GFA
    • Riser shafts: 0.5-0.8m² per floor (4 pipes + fresh air duct)
    • FCU access panels in ceiling: 600x600mm per unit, at 3-6m spacing
  • Ductwork dimensions: Fresh air main duct: 400x300mm to 800x400mm (depending on floor area served). Branch to each FCU: 200x150mm flex duct.
  • Pipework dimensions: CHW/HHW mains: 50-100mm diameter. Branch to FCU: 15-22mm diameter.
  • Energy performance: COP 3.5-5.0 (chiller). Total HVAC energy: 80-120 kWh/m²/yr.
  • Noise ratings: NR 35-40 (FCU noise can be problematic in quiet spaces — specify low-noise units)
  • Best-fit building types: Hotels (individual room control), residential apartments (with central plant), commercial offices, hospitals (patient rooms)
  • 描述：集中新风供应（通过AHU）仅提供通风用空气（通常每人10-12 L/s）。吊顶处的独立风机盘管机组利用中央机房提供的冷水/热水实现局部供暖/制冷。四管制系统（独立的供暖和制冷回路）是商业建筑的标准配置。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 吊顶空间：350-500mm（AHU风管：300-400mm矩形；FCU：200-300mm高；管道：100-150mm）
    • AHU机房：占GFA的2-3%
    • 制冷机房（屋顶或地下室）：占GFA的1-2%
    • 立管井：每层0.5-0.8m²（4根管道+新风管）
    • 吊顶内FCU检修口：每个机组600x600mm，间距3-6m
  • 风管尺寸：新风主管：400x300mm至800x400mm（取决于服务的楼层面积）。每个FCU的支管：200x150mm柔性风管。
  • 管道尺寸：CHW/HHW主管：直径50-100mm。FCU支管：直径15-22mm。
  • 能耗表现：COP 3.5-5.0（制冷机）。HVAC总能耗：80-120 kWh/m²/年。
  • 噪声等级：NR 35-40（安静空间中FCU噪声可能成为问题——需指定低噪声机组）
  • 最适用建筑类型：酒店（独立房间控制）、公寓（带中央机房）、商业办公楼、医院（病房）

System Type 4: Variable Air Volume (VAV)

系统类型4：变风量系统（VAV）

  • Description: Centralised AHUs supply conditioned air through a duct network. VAV terminal boxes at each zone modulate airflow volume to match heating/cooling demand. High airflow rates require large duct sizes.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • Ceiling void: 500-800mm (large main ducts: 600x400mm to 1200x600mm; branch ducts: 300x250mm to 500x300mm; VAV boxes: 300x400x800mm)
    • AHU plant room: 3-5% of GFA (AHUs are large: typical unit 2.0x1.5x3.0m serving 1000-2000m²)
    • Riser shafts: 1.0-2.0m² per floor (large supply and return air ducts)
    • Return air: Via ceiling plenum or ducted return (adds to void depth if ducted)
  • Ductwork dimensions: Main supply duct: 800x400mm to 1500x800mm. Branch ducts: 300x200mm to 600x300mm. Return air duct: 70-80% of supply duct size.
  • Energy performance: COP 3.5-5.5 (chiller). Fan energy significant — variable speed drives reduce this by 30-50%. Total HVAC energy: 90-140 kWh/m²/yr.
  • Noise ratings: NR 30-40 (well-designed); NR 40-50 (poorly designed — duct velocity critical)
  • Best-fit building types: Large open-plan offices (>2000m² per floor), laboratories (high air-change rates), clean rooms, trading floors
  • Limitations: Large duct sizes increase floor-to-floor height. Not efficient for cellular offices with many small zones. Higher fan energy than water-based systems.
  • 描述：集中式AHU通过风管网络供应经处理的空气。每个区域的VAV末端箱调节风量以匹配供暖/制冷需求。高风量要求大尺寸风管。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 吊顶空间：500-800mm（大型主管：600x400mm至1200x600mm；支管：300x250mm至500x300mm；VAV箱：300x400x800mm）
    • AHU机房：占GFA的3-5%（AHU体积较大：典型机组尺寸2.0x1.5x3.0m，可服务1000-2000m²面积）
    • 立管井：每层1.0-2.0m²（大型送风管和回风管）
    • 回风：通过吊顶静压箱或风管回风（若采用风管回风会增加吊顶空间深度）
  • 风管尺寸：送风主管：800x400mm至1500x800mm。支管：300x200mm至600x300mm。回风管：尺寸为送风管的70-80%。
  • 能耗表现：COP 3.5-5.5（制冷机）。风机能耗占比大——变频驱动可降低30-50%的风机能耗。HVAC总能耗：90-140 kWh/m²/年。
  • 噪声等级：NR 30-40（设计良好时）；NR 40-50（设计不佳时——风管风速是关键因素）
  • 最适用建筑类型：大型开放式办公室（每层>2000m²）、实验室（高换气次数）、洁净室、交易大厅
  • 局限性：大尺寸风管会增加层高。对于有多个小区域的分隔式办公楼效率不高。风机能耗高于水系统。

System Type 5: Chilled Beams (Active and Passive)

系统类型5：冷梁系统（主动式与被动式）

  • Description: Chilled water circulates through finned tubes mounted in ceiling-level units. Passive chilled beams rely on natural convection. Active chilled beams induce room air over the coil using a primary air supply from a central AHU.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • Ceiling void: 300-450mm (active chilled beams: 200-300mm high + primary air duct 150-200mm)
    • AHU plant room: 2-3% of GFA (smaller AHUs than VAV — primary air only)
    • Riser shafts: 0.6-1.0m² per floor (CHW pipes + primary air duct)
    • Chilled beam units: 300-600mm wide x 1200-3000mm long, mounted flush in ceiling grid or exposed
  • Pipework dimensions: CHW mains: 40-80mm dia. Branch to beam: 15-22mm dia. Primary air duct: 250x200mm to 500x300mm.
  • Energy performance: Excellent — water transports 4x more energy per unit volume than air. COP 4.0-6.0. Total HVAC: 60-90 kWh/m²/yr.
  • Noise ratings: NR 25-30 (passive beams are silent; active beams have slight induction noise)
  • Best-fit building types: Offices (premium), schools, universities, museums — where quiet operation and low energy are priorities
  • Limitations: Condensation risk — chilled water temperature must stay above dew point (typically 14-16C). Not suitable for high latent loads (kitchens, swimming pools). Limited cooling capacity: 80-120 W/m² (vs 150+ W/m² for FCU/VAV).
  • 描述：冷水在吊顶内机组的翅片管中循环。被动式冷梁依靠自然对流工作。主动式冷梁利用中央AHU提供的一次风诱导室内空气流经盘管。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 吊顶空间：300-450mm（主动式冷梁：200-300mm高 + 一次风管150-200mm）
    • AHU机房：占GFA的2-3%（AHU比VAV系统的小——仅处理一次风）
    • 立管井：每层0.6-1.0m²（CHW管道+一次风管）
    • 冷梁机组：宽300-600mm x 长1200-3000mm，可嵌入吊顶格栅或明装
  • 管道尺寸：CHW主管：直径40-80mm。冷梁支管：直径15-22mm。一次风管：250x200mm至500x300mm。
  • 能耗表现：优异——水的单位体积输能能力是空气的4倍。COP 4.0-6.0。HVAC总能耗：60-90 kWh/m²/年。
  • 噪声等级：NR 25-30（被动式冷梁无噪声；主动式冷梁有轻微诱导噪声）
  • 最适用建筑类型：（高端）办公楼、中小学、大学、博物馆——优先考虑安静运行和低能耗的建筑
  • 局限性：存在结露风险——冷水温度必须高于露点（通常为14-16℃）。不适用于高潜热负荷空间（厨房、游泳池）。制冷能力有限：80-120 W/m²（而FCU/VAV可达150+ W/m²）。

System Type 6: Variable Refrigerant Flow (VRF/VRV)

系统类型6：变制冷剂流量系统（VRF/VRV）

  • Description: Direct expansion refrigerant system with one outdoor condensing unit serving multiple indoor fan coil units via refrigerant pipework. Heat recovery variants (3-pipe) allow simultaneous heating and cooling in different zones.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • Ceiling void: 250-350mm (indoor units: 200-250mm high; refrigerant pipes: 15-30mm dia.)
    • No central AHU plant room required (massive space saving)
    • Outdoor condensing units: roof or ground level, 800x300x900mm each (3-6 per system)
    • Riser shafts: Small — 0.2-0.4m² per floor (refrigerant pipes only; separate fresh air required)
    • Fresh air provision: Separate DOAS or heat recovery ventilation unit required
  • Refrigerant pipework: Liquid line 6.35-15.88mm dia.; gas line 12.7-28.58mm dia. Maximum pipe run: 165m (varies by manufacturer).
  • Energy performance: COP 3.5-5.5. Total HVAC: 70-110 kWh/m²/yr.
  • Noise ratings: NR 30-35 (indoor units); outdoor units can be 55-65 dBA (screen or locate away from noise-sensitive facades)
  • Best-fit building types: Multi-zone buildings (offices with diverse tenants), retrofit (small pipes suit existing buildings), hotels, residential with individual metering
  • Limitations: Refrigerant charge limits in occupied spaces (F-gas regulations). Maximum pipe lengths limit building size. Not suitable for very large floor plates. Refrigerant leak detection required.
  • 描述：直接膨胀式制冷剂系统，一台室外冷凝机组通过制冷剂管道服务多台室内风机盘管机组。热回收型（三管制）可实现不同区域同时供暖和制冷。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 吊顶空间：250-350mm（室内机：200-250mm高；制冷剂管：直径15-30mm）
    • 无需中央AHU机房（大幅节省空间）
    • 室外冷凝机组：屋顶或地面安装，单台尺寸800x300x900mm（每个系统3-6台）
    • 立管井：较小——每层0.2-0.4m²（仅制冷剂管道；需单独设置新风系统）
    • 新风供应：需单独设置DOAS或热回收通风机组
  • 制冷剂管道：液管直径6.35-15.88mm；气管直径12.7-28.58mm。最大管长：165m（因制造商而异）。
  • 能耗表现：COP 3.5-5.5。HVAC总能耗：70-110 kWh/m²/年。
  • 噪声等级：NR 30-35（室内机）；室外机可达55-65 dBA（需设置隔声屏障或远离对噪声敏感的立面）
  • 最适用建筑类型：多区域建筑（租户多样的办公楼）、改造项目（小管径适配既有建筑）、酒店、分户计量的住宅
  • 局限性：有人空间的制冷剂充注量受限（F-gas法规）。最大管长限制了建筑规模。不适用于超大进深的楼层。需设置制冷剂泄漏检测系统。

System Type 7: Displacement Ventilation

系统类型7：置换通风

  • Description: Low-velocity conditioned air supplied at floor level (or low-level wall diffusers) rises naturally through buoyancy as it absorbs heat from occupants and equipment. Extract at ceiling level. Creates stratified temperature profile — cooler at occupied level, warmer at ceiling.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • Raised floor: 250-400mm (supply air plenum beneath raised floor)
    • Ceiling void: 200-300mm (return air only — smaller than conventional systems)
    • Floor diffusers: Swirl-type, 200-300mm diameter, at 4-6m² per diffuser
    • AHU plant room: 2-3% of GFA
  • Ductwork dimensions: Underfloor supply through raised floor plenum — no supply ductwork above ceiling. Return ducts at ceiling: 400x300mm to 600x400mm.
  • Energy performance: 15-30% more efficient than overhead mixing ventilation. Supply air temperature 18-20C (vs 12-14C for mixing). Total HVAC: 55-85 kWh/m²/yr.
  • Noise ratings: NR 25-30 (very quiet — low air velocities)
  • Best-fit building types: Auditoria, theatres, concert halls (seated audience generates buoyancy), open-plan offices with raised floors, atriums
  • Limitations: Supply air temperature limited to 18C minimum (drafts if colder). Cooling capacity limited: 40-60 W/m². Not suitable for spaces with high ceilings and no thermal stratification benefit.
  • 描述：低速经处理空气从地面（或低位墙面散流器）送出，吸收人员和设备的热量后因热压自然上升。回风设在吊顶处。形成分层温度分布——人员活动区较凉，吊顶处较暖。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 架空地板：250-400mm（架空地板下方为送风静压箱）
    • 吊顶空间：200-300mm（仅用于回风——比传统系统小）
    • 地面散流器：旋流型，直径200-300mm，每个散流器服务4-6m²
    • AHU机房：占GFA的2-3%
  • 风管尺寸：送风通过架空地板静压箱实现——吊顶上方无送风管道。吊顶处回风管：400x300mm至600x400mm。
  • 能耗表现：比顶部混合通风效率高15-30%。送风温度18-20℃（混合通风为12-14℃）。HVAC总能耗：55-85 kWh/m²/年。
  • 噪声等级：NR 25-30（非常安静——风速低）
  • 最适用建筑类型：礼堂、剧院、音乐厅（坐姿观众产生的热压利于通风）、带架空地板的开放式办公室、中庭
  • 局限性：送风温度最低不得低于18℃（温度更低会产生吹风感）。制冷能力有限：40-60 W/m²。不适用于层高很高、无法利用热分层优势的空间。

System Type 8: Dedicated Outdoor Air System (DOAS)

系统类型8：独立新风系统（DOAS）

  • Description: Centralised AHU handles 100% outdoor air (ventilation), conditioning it to neutral temperature and humidity. Separate systems (radiant ceiling, chilled beams, fan coils, active chilled slab) handle local heating/cooling loads. Decouples ventilation from thermal conditioning.
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • DOAS AHU: Smaller than conventional AHU (ventilation air only) — 1.5-2.5% of GFA for plant
    • Ceiling void: Dependent on local system (radiant: 100-200mm; chilled beams: 300-450mm)
    • Riser shafts: DOAS duct + local system pipework — 0.6-1.2m² per floor
  • Energy performance: Total HVAC energy: 50-80 kWh/m²/yr (when paired with radiant system)
  • Best-fit building types: High-performance offices, Passivhaus-adjacent designs, any building targeting ultra-low energy
  • Exemplar: Bullitt Center, Seattle (2013); One Angel Square, Manchester (2013)
  • 描述：集中式AHU处理100%室外空气（通风），将其调节至中性温湿度。独立系统（辐射吊顶、冷梁、风机盘管、主动式冷却楼板）承担局部供暖/制冷负荷。实现通风与热调节的解耦。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • DOAS AHU：比传统AHU小（仅处理通风用空气）——设备用房占GFA的1.5-2.5%
    • 吊顶空间：取决于局部系统（辐射系统：100-200mm；冷梁：300-450mm）
    • 立管井：DOAS风管+局部系统管道——每层0.6-1.2m²
  • 能耗表现：HVAC总能耗：50-80 kWh/m²/年（与辐射系统搭配时）
  • 最适用建筑类型：高性能办公楼、近被动房设计、任何以超低能耗为目标的建筑
  • 参考案例：西雅图布利特中心（2013）；曼彻斯特一号天使广场（2013）

System Type 9: District Heating and Cooling

系统类型9：区域供热与供冷

  • Description: Thermal energy supplied to buildings from a centralised district energy plant via underground insulated pipes. Buildings connect via heat exchangers in a plant room (energy transfer station, ETS).
  • Spatial impact on architecture:
    • No boiler or chiller plant on site (major space saving: eliminates 2-4% of GFA)
    • ETS plant room: 0.5-1.0% of GFA (heat exchangers, pumps, meters)
    • Underground pipe entry point required at basement/ground level
    • Distribution within building: Standard LTHW/CHW pipework from ETS
  • Energy performance: Varies by district source — CHP 80-90% efficiency; waste heat recovery can be near-zero carbon; ground-source heat pump networks COP 3.5-5.0
  • Best-fit building types: Urban mixed-use developments, campus developments (universities, hospitals), masterplan-scale projects
  • Exemplar: Copenhagen district heating (serves 98% of city); Olympic Park London (2012); Battersea Power Station redevelopment
  • 描述：热能由集中式区域能源厂通过地下保温管道供应给建筑。建筑通过机房内的换热器（能源转换站，ETS）接入系统。
  • 对建筑的空间影响：
    • 场地内无需锅炉房或制冷机房（大幅节省空间：可减少2-4%的GFA）
    • ETS机房：占GFA的0.5-1.0%（放置换热器、泵、计量装置）
    • 需在地下室/地面层设置地下管道接入点
    • 建筑内分布：从ETS引出的标准LTHW/CHW管道
  • 能耗表现：因区域能源来源而异——CHP效率为80-90%；余热回收可实现近零碳排放；地源热泵管网COP为3.5-5.0
  • 最适用建筑类型：城市混合用途开发项目、园区开发项目（大学、医院）、总体规划级项目
  • 参考案例：哥本哈根区域供热（服务98%的城市人口）；伦敦奥林匹克公园（2012）；巴特西发电站改造项目

Section 2: Plumbing and Drainage

第2节：给排水系统

Hot and Cold Water Distribution

冷热水分配

Cold water supply systems:
  • Direct system: Mains pressure to all outlets. Typical in low-rise residential. Incoming main: 25-32mm (house), 50-80mm (apartment block), 80-150mm (commercial).
  • Indirect system: Mains fills roof-level storage tank; outlets fed by gravity. Provides storage for peak demand and pressure regulation. Tank sizing: 115 litres per person per day (office); 135 litres per person per day (residential).
  • Boosted system: Pumped supply for tall buildings where mains pressure insufficient. Break tanks at basement; booster pumps; roof tanks or pressure vessels at upper levels. Pressure zones every 30-40m of height.
Hot water systems:
  • Point-of-use heaters: Electric instantaneous or small storage (6-15 litres). Minimal pipework. Suit remote outlets.
  • Centralised calorifier: Storage vessel heated by boiler or heat pump. Capacity: 40-60 litres per person (residential); 5-10 litres per person (office). Located in plant room.
  • Plate heat exchanger + thermal store: More efficient than calorifier. Common in district heating connections.
  • Legionella prevention: Store hot water at 60C minimum, distribute at 55C minimum, return at 50C minimum. Dead-legs must be <3m or have trace heating.
冷水供应系统：
  • 直接供水系统：所有用水点均采用市政水压。常见于低层住宅。引入管管径：25-32mm（住宅）、50-80mm（公寓楼）、80-150mm（商业建筑）。
  • 间接供水系统：市政水先注入屋顶水箱，用水点靠重力供水。可储存峰值用水量并调节水压。水箱尺寸：办公楼每人每天115升；住宅每人每天135升。
  • 加压供水系统：用于市政水压不足的高层建筑。地下室设断流水箱；配置加压泵；上层设屋顶水箱或压力容器。每30-40m高度划分一个压力分区。
热水系统：
  • 即热式热水器：电即热或小型储水式（6-15升）。管道用量极少。适用于偏远用水点。
  • 集中式水加热器：由锅炉或热泵加热的储水容器。容量：住宅每人40-60升；办公楼每人5-10升。设于机房内。
  • 板式换热器+蓄热罐：比水加热器效率更高。常见于区域供热接入系统。
  • 军团菌防控：热水储存温度不低于60℃，输送温度不低于55℃，回水温度不低于50℃。死水段长度必须小于3m，或设置伴热。

Pipe Sizes (Typical)

管道尺寸（典型值）

Pipe FunctionTypical Diameter
Individual outlet (basin, WC cistern)15mm
Branch (serving 2-5 outlets)22mm
Sub-main (serving a floor or group)28-35mm
Main riser (cold water up, hot water flow/return)35-54mm
Incoming main (apartment block)50-80mm
Incoming main (commercial building)80-150mm
管道用途典型管径
单个用水点（洗手盆、马桶水箱）15mm
支管（服务2-5个用水点）22mm
干管（服务整层或一组区域）28-35mm
主立管（冷水上行、热水供/回水）35-54mm
引入管（公寓楼）50-80mm
引入管（商业建筑）80-150mm

Drainage Systems

排水系统

Soil drainage (foul water — WCs, urinals):
  • WC branch: 100mm diameter (min. 1:40 gradient or steeper)
  • Soil stack (vertical): 100mm diameter (serves up to 10 floors of residential)
  • Building drain (horizontal below ground): 100-150mm (1:40 to 1:80 gradient)
Waste drainage (basins, showers, sinks, baths):
  • Individual waste pipe: 32mm (basin), 40mm (bath/shower/sink)
  • Waste branch: 50mm (multiple outlets)
  • Combined waste/soil stack: 100mm (if receiving both waste and soil)
Rainwater drainage:
  • Roof outlet sizing: Based on rainfall intensity (75mm/hr UK design standard; 150mm/hr tropical)
  • Downpipe: 75mm (up to 55m² roof), 100mm (up to 130m² roof), 150mm (up to 300m² roof)
  • Siphonic drainage: Higher capacity at smaller pipe sizes but requires specialist design. 56mm siphonic pipe equivalent to 100mm conventional.
粪便污水排水（污水——马桶、小便池）：
  • 马桶支管：直径100mm（最小坡度1:40或更陡）
  • 污水立管（垂直）：直径100mm（可服务最多10层住宅）
  • 建筑排出管（地下水平管）：100-150mm（坡度1:40至1:80）
废水排水（洗手盆、淋浴、水槽、浴缸）：
  • 单个废水管：32mm（洗手盆）、40mm（浴缸/淋浴/水槽）
  • 废水支管：50mm（多个用水点）
  • 废污合流立管：100mm（若同时承接废水和污水）
雨水排水：
  • 雨水斗尺寸：基于降雨强度（英国设计标准为75mm/小时；热带地区为150mm/小时）
  • 雨水立管：75mm（服务最多55m²屋面）、100mm（服务最多130m²屋面）、150mm（服务最多300m²屋面）
  • 虹吸式排水：管径更小但排水能力更强，需专业设计。56mm虹吸管相当于100mm传统排水管的排水能力。

Drainage Falls

排水坡度

Pipe DiameterMinimum GradientMaximum Gradient
50mm waste1:40 (25mm per metre)1:20
75mm waste/rainwater1:40 to 1:501:20
100mm soil/drain1:40 (minimum 1 WC) to 1:80 (5+ WCs)1:20
150mm drain1:80 to 1:1501:40
管径最小坡度最大坡度
50mm废水管1:40（每米25mm）1:20
75mm废水/雨水管1:40至1:501:20
100mm污水/排出管1:40（最少1个马桶）至1:80（5个及以上马桶）1:20
150mm排出管1:80至1:1501:40

Wet-Room Stacking Principle

湿区叠合原则

Bathrooms, kitchens, and other wet rooms should be stacked vertically through the building to minimise horizontal drainage runs. Horizontal drains require falls (25-40mm per metre) which consume floor void depth. Non-stacked wet rooms create:
  • Longer pipe runs
  • Deeper floor voids to accommodate falls
  • More penetrations through structural elements
  • Greater risk of leaks above occupied spaces
Design rule: All wet rooms should be within 3m horizontal distance of a soil/waste stack.
卫生间、厨房及其他湿区应在建筑内垂直叠合布置，以尽量减少水平排水管道长度。水平排水管需要坡度（每米25-40mm），会占用楼板空间深度。未叠合的湿区会导致：
  • 管道长度增加
  • 需要更深的楼板空间以容纳坡度
  • 结构构件上的开孔更多
  • 有人空间上方的漏水风险更高
设计原则：所有湿区与污水/废水立管的水平距离应在3m以内。

Riser Sizing

立管尺寸

ServiceTypical Riser SizeNotes
Cold water (residential, per 8-10 apartments)150x150mm duct (35-54mm pipe + insulation)Insulation for condensation prevention
Hot water (residential, per 8-10 apartments)150x150mm duct (35-54mm pipe + insulation)Flow and return pipes
Soil/waste stack (per group of bathrooms)150x150mm duct (100mm pipe)Access required at each floor
Combined services riser (residential)600x400mm ductCW, HW, soil, waste, rainwater, gas
Rainwater stack100x100mm duct (75-100mm pipe)Internal or external
系统典型立管尺寸备注
冷水（住宅，每8-10套公寓）150x150mm管井（35-54mm管道+保温）保温用于防止结露
热水（住宅，每8-10套公寓）150x150mm管井（35-54mm管道+保温）包含供水管和回水管
污水/废水立管（每组卫生间）150x150mm管井（100mm管道）每层需设置检修口
住宅综合管井600x400mm管井包含冷水、热水、污水、废水、雨水、燃气
雨水立管100x100mm管井（75-100mm管道）可室内或室外设置

Section 3: Electrical Systems

第3节：电气系统

Power Distribution Hierarchy

配电层级

  1. Incoming supply: From utility transformer or on-site substation. Voltage: 400V 3-phase (UK/EU) or 480V 3-phase (US). Incoming cable: typically via underground duct to main switchroom at ground/basement level.
  2. Main switchboard (MSB): Located in main electrical switchroom. Distributes power to sub-main distribution boards via vertical bus-bar risers or cable risers.
  3. Sub-main distribution boards: Located on each floor (or every 2-3 floors in residential). Size: typically 800x2000mm wall-mounted panel.
  4. Final distribution boards: Local to each tenancy or zone. Feed final circuits (lighting, small power, dedicated equipment).
  5. Final circuits: Ring mains (UK: 32A, serving 100m² floor area) or radial circuits (US: 20A, serving 50-80m² floor area).
  1. 进线电源：来自公用变压器或现场变电站。电压：400V三相（英国/欧盟）或480V三相（美国）。进线电缆：通常通过地下管道接入地面/地下室的主开关站。
  2. 主配电盘（MSB）：位于主电气开关站内。通过垂直母线槽或电缆立管向次配电盘供电。
  3. 次配电盘：每层设置（住宅每2-3层设置）。尺寸：通常为800x2000mm壁挂式配电柜。
  4. 末端配电盘：靠近每个租户或区域。为末端回路（照明、小动力、专用设备）供电。
  5. 末端回路：环形干线（英国：32A，服务100m²楼层面积）或放射式回路（美国：20A，服务50-80m²楼层面积）。

Typical Electrical Loads by Building Type

不同建筑类型的典型电气负荷

Building TypeSmall Power (W/m²)Lighting (W/m²)Total Electrical (W/m²)Notes
Commercial office (standard)25-3510-1250-80Includes IT loads
Commercial office (trading floor)50-8010-1280-150High-density IT
Residential (apartment)15-255-830-50Per unit
Hotel (guest room)10-155-820-40Per room
Retail (general)15-2512-1840-60Higher lighting
Hospital (general areas)20-308-1250-80Excludes specialist equipment
Hospital (operating theatre)50-10015-20100-200High specialist loads
School / university15-258-1230-50IT rooms higher
Laboratory40-8010-1580-150Varies widely by type
Data centre500-20005-10500-2000+IT load dominant
Warehouse / industrial5-155-1015-30Excludes process loads
建筑类型小动力负荷（W/m²）照明负荷（W/m²）总电气负荷（W/m²）备注
标准商业办公楼25-3510-1250-80包含IT负荷
商业办公楼（交易大厅）50-8010-1280-150高密度IT负荷
住宅（公寓）15-255-830-50每套单位
酒店（客房）10-155-820-40每间客房
一般零售商业15-2512-1840-60照明负荷较高
医院（普通区域）20-308-1250-80不含专用设备负荷
医院（手术室）50-10015-20100-200专用设备负荷高
中小学/大学15-258-1230-50机房负荷更高
实验室40-8010-1580-150因类型差异较大
数据中心500-20005-10500-2000+IT负荷占主导
仓库/工业建筑5-155-1015-30不含生产工艺负荷

Emergency Power

应急电源

  • Standby generator: Diesel generator providing backup power during mains failure. Sizing: 30-50% of building total load (life safety + critical systems). Location: basement or roof (with fuel storage, exhaust flue, acoustic enclosure). Space requirement: 1.0-2.5m² per 100 kVA. Typical office generator: 200-500 kVA (5-10m² generator room).
  • Uninterruptible Power Supply (UPS): Battery backup for zero-interruption supply to critical loads (IT, medical equipment, security). Typically 5-30 minutes autonomy. Battery room: 0.5-2.0m² per 100 kVA.
  • Essential circuits: Life safety lighting, fire alarm, smoke extract fans, firefighting lift, sprinkler pumps — must have secondary power supply (generator or battery).
  • 备用发电机：市电故障时提供备用电源的柴油发电机。容量：建筑总负荷的30-50%（生命安全系统+关键系统）。位置：地下室或屋顶（需配置燃油储存、排烟道、隔声罩）。空间需求：每100 kVA需1.0-2.5m²。典型办公楼发电机：200-500 kVA（发电机房面积5-10m²）。
  • 不间断电源（UPS）：为关键负荷（IT、医疗设备、安防）提供零中断供电的电池备用系统。通常续航时间为5-30分钟。电池室：每100 kVA需0.5-2.0m²。
  • 重要回路：生命安全照明、火灾报警、排烟风机、消防电梯、喷淋泵——必须配备备用电源（发电机或电池）。

Lightning Protection

防雷系统

  • Requirement: BS EN 62305 risk assessment determines need. Generally required for buildings over 20m, buildings with high occupancy, or buildings with sensitive equipment.
  • Components: Air termination network (roof conductors at 10-20m mesh), down conductors (at 10-20m spacing around perimeter), earth electrodes (ring earth at foundation level).
  • Spatial impact: Down conductors run inside or outside the facade — coordinate with cladding design. Test clamps required at 1.5m above ground level.
  • 要求：需根据BS EN 62305风险评估确定是否需要。通常20m以上的建筑、高人员密度建筑或配备敏感设备的建筑需要设置。
  • 组成：接闪网（屋顶导体组成10-20m网格）、引下线（沿建筑周边间距10-20m布置）、接地极（基础层环形接地）。
  • 空间影响：引下线可沿立面内侧或外侧布置——需与幕墙设计协调。地面以上1.5m处需设置测试卡子。

Electrical Riser Sizing

电气立管尺寸

Building TypeElectrical Riser Size (per floor)Notes
Residential (per 8-10 apartments)400x200mmBus-bar riser or cable tray
Commercial office (per floor of 1000m²)600x400mmBus-bar or cable ladder
Hospital (per floor)800x400mmSeparated essential and normal circuits
建筑类型电气立管尺寸（每层）备注
住宅（每8-10套公寓）400x200mm母线槽或电缆桥架
商业办公楼（每层1000m²）600x400mm母线槽或电缆梯架
医院（每层）800x400mm重要回路与普通回路分开设置

Lighting Power Density Targets (ASHRAE 90.1 / CIBSE)

照明功率密度目标（ASHRAE 90.1 / CIBSE）

Space TypeASHRAE 90.1 LPD (W/m²)CIBSE Target (W/m²)Maintained Illuminance (lux)
Open-plan office9.88-10300-500
Private office10.18-10300-500
Retail (general)11.812-15300-500
Retail (accent/display)16.115-20500-1000
Classroom10.58-10300-500
Hospital ward8.16-8100-300
Corridor / circulation5.44-6100-150
Car park1.82-375-100
Warehouse6.05-8150-300
空间类型ASHRAE 90.1 照明功率密度（W/m²）CIBSE 目标值（W/m²）维持照度（lux）
开放式办公室9.88-10300-500
独立办公室10.18-10300-500
一般零售商业11.812-15300-500
零售（重点/展示区）16.115-20500-1000
教室10.58-10300-500
医院病房8.16-8100-300
走廊/交通空间5.44-6100-150
停车场1.82-375-100
仓库6.05-8150-300

Section 4: Vertical Transportation

第4节：垂直交通

Elevator Types

电梯类型

TypeMechanismMachine RoomMax Speed (m/s)Max Travel (m)Best-Fit
Traction (geared)Motor + gearbox + ropesAbove shaft2.560Mid-rise, 5-20 floors
Traction (gearless)Direct-drive motor + ropesAbove shaft10+500+High-rise, express lifts
Machine-room-less (MRL)Motor in shaft headroomNone (motor in shaft)4.075Most common today, up to 25 floors
HydraulicHydraulic ramBelow shaft (pump room)1.018Low-rise, 2-6 floors, goods lifts
Double-deckTwo cabins, one above otherAbove shaft10+500+Super-tall, high-density
类型驱动方式机房最高速度（m/s）最大提升高度（m）最适用场景
曳引式（有齿轮）电机+齿轮箱+钢丝绳井道上方2.560中层建筑，5-20层
曳引式（无齿轮）直驱电机+钢丝绳井道上方10+500+高层建筑，高速电梯
无机房电梯（MRL）电机设于井道顶部无机房（电机在井道内）4.075目前最常用，最多25层
液压式液压柱塞井道下方（泵房）1.018低层建筑，2-6层，货梯
双层轿厢两个轿厢上下叠置井道上方10+500+超高层建筑，高密度客流

Elevator Sizing Formula

电梯数量计算公式

Number of elevators required:
n = (P x RTT) / (300 x HC)
Where:
  • P = peak population to be served (typically 80% of building population arriving in 5 minutes for office)
  • RTT = Round Trip Time in seconds (time for one complete cycle: loading + travel up + stops + unloading + travel down)
  • 300 = 300 seconds (5-minute peak period)
  • HC = Handling Capacity per car (typically 80% of rated capacity — e.g., 80% x 21 persons = 17 persons for a 1600kg lift)
RTT estimation (simplified): RTT = 2 x H/V + (S x ts) + 2 x P x tp
Where:
  • H = total travel height (m)
  • V = rated speed (m/s)
  • S = number of stops (probable) — approximately N x (1 - ((N-1)/N)^P) where N = number of floors
  • ts = stop time (door open + close + acceleration/deceleration) ≈ 8-12 seconds
  • P = passengers per trip
  • tp = passenger transfer time ≈ 1.2 seconds
Target performance (BCO standard for UK offices):
  • Waiting interval: <25 seconds (Grade A office); <30 seconds (Grade B)
  • Handling capacity: 12-15% of building population in 5 minutes
  • Time to destination: <90 seconds (including wait)
所需电梯数量：
n = (P x RTT) / (300 x HC)
其中：
  • P = 服务的高峰人数（办公楼通常为5分钟内到达的建筑总人数的80%）
  • RTT = 往返时间（秒）（一个完整周期的时间：载客+上行+停站+卸客+下行）
  • 300 = 300秒（5分钟高峰时段）
  • HC = 单梯运载能力（通常为额定容量的80%——例如，1600kg电梯的额定载客量为21人，HC为80%×21=17人）
RTT估算（简化版）： RTT = 2 x H/V + (S x ts) + 2 x P x tp
其中：
  • H = 总提升高度（m）
  • V = 额定速度（m/s）
  • S = （预计）停站次数——约为N×(1 - ((N-1)/N)^P)，其中N为楼层数
  • ts = 停站时间（开门+关门+加减速）≈ 8-12秒
  • P = 单次行程乘客数
  • tp = 乘客进出时间≈ 1.2秒
性能目标（英国办公楼BCO标准）：
  • 候梯间隔：<25秒（甲级办公楼）；<30秒（乙级办公楼）
  • 运载能力：5分钟内运送建筑总人数的12-15%
  • 到达目的地时间：<90秒（含候梯时间）

Elevator Shaft Dimensions

电梯井道尺寸

Rated Load (kg)PersonsCar Internal (mm) W x DShaft Internal (mm) W x DDoor Width (mm)Pit Depth (mm)Headroom Above Top Floor (mm)
63081100 x 14001700 x 190080014003600
1000131350 x 16001950 x 210090014003800
1275171600 x 16002200 x 2100100014003800
1600211600 x 21002200 x 2600110015004200
2000262000 x 21002600 x 2600120015004200
2500 (goods)—2100 x 27002700 x 3400130015004500
Notes: Shaft dimensions include structural walls (150-200mm concrete each side). Counter-weight space at rear of shaft. MRL lifts require slightly taller headroom (add 400-600mm) but eliminate machine room.
额定载重（kg）载客量（人）轿厢内部尺寸（mm） 宽×深井道内部尺寸（mm） 宽×深门宽（mm）底坑深度（mm）顶层高度（mm）
63081100 x 14001700 x 190080014003600
1000131350 x 16001950 x 210090014003800
1275171600 x 16002200 x 2100100014003800
1600211600 x 21002200 x 2600110015004200
2000262000 x 21002600 x 2600120015004200
2500（货梯）—2100 x 27002700 x 3400130015004500
备注：井道尺寸包含结构墙（每侧150-200mm混凝土）。对重空间位于井道后部。MRL电梯的顶层高度需略高（增加400-600mm），但无需机房。

Escalator Dimensions

自动扶梯尺寸

ParameterStandard (30 degree)High-Rise (35 degree)
Step width1000mm (standard) or 800mm (narrow)1000mm
Overall width (including balustrade)1200mm (800mm step) or 1400mm (1000mm step)1400mm
Incline angle30 degrees35 degrees
Speed0.5 m/s0.5 m/s
Capacity6000-9000 persons/hour (1000mm step)6000-9000 persons/hour
Pit depth1000-1200mm1000-1200mm
Headroom (minimum)2300mm clear above any step2300mm
Floor-to-floor height (typical)3500-6000mm3500-6000mm
Horizontal run-out at top and bottom800-1000mm flat steps before incline600-800mm
Structural opening (per pair up + down)2800-3200mm wide x varies longAs left
Planning rule: For floor-to-floor height of 4000mm at 30 degrees: horizontal length ≈ 4000/tan(30) = 6930mm + 1600mm run-outs = 8530mm total plan length.
参数标准型（30度）高层型（35度）
梯级宽度1000mm（标准）或800mm（窄型）1000mm
总宽度（含扶手带）1200mm（800mm梯级）或1400mm（1000mm梯级）1400mm
倾斜角度30度35度
速度0.5 m/s0.5 m/s
运载能力6000-9000人/小时（1000mm梯级）6000-9000人/小时
底坑深度1000-1200mm1000-1200mm
最小净高任何梯级上方净空2300mm2300mm
典型层高3500-6000mm3500-6000mm
上下水平段长度倾斜段前有800-1000mm水平梯级600-800mm
结构开洞（上下行一对）宽2800-3200mm × 长度依情况而定同左
规划原则：若层高为4000mm、倾斜角度为30度，水平长度≈4000/tan(30°)=6930mm + 1600mm水平段 = 总平面长度8530mm。

Goods Lift Sizing

货梯尺寸

ApplicationRated Load (kg)Car Internal (mm) W x D x HDoor Width x Height (mm)
Service lift (catering trolleys)300-5001000 x 1200 x 2100800 x 2000
Bed lift (hospital)2000-25001400 x 2400 x 23001300 x 2100
Goods/furniture lift2000-30002100 x 2700 x 24001800 x 2200
Car lift (vehicle transport)3000-50002700 x 5500 x 22002500 x 2100
Firefighting lift1000-1600Per BS EN 81-72800-1100 x 2000
用途额定载重（kg）轿厢内部尺寸（mm） 宽×深×高门尺寸（mm） 宽×高
服务梯（餐车）300-5001000 x 1200 x 2100800 x 2000
病床梯（医院）2000-25001400 x 2400 x 23001300 x 2100
货梯/家具梯2000-30002100 x 2700 x 24001800 x 2200
汽车梯（车辆运输）3000-50002700 x 5500 x 22002500 x 2100
消防电梯1000-1600符合BS EN 81-72标准800-1100 x 2000

Section 5: Fire Protection Systems

第5节：消防系统

Sprinkler Systems

喷淋系统

TypeDescriptionApplicationActivation
Wet-pipePipes permanently charged with waterHeated buildings (most common)Individual head activates at rated temperature (57-74C)
Dry-pipePipes charged with compressed air; water admitted on activationUnheated spaces (car parks, loading docks), freezing riskIndividual head; water fills pipe after air release
Pre-actionDry pipe; water admitted only when fire detection system also activatesAreas with high-value contents (museums, server rooms, archives)Detection + head activation (double interlock)
DelugeAll heads open (no thermal element); water floods entire zone on detectionHigh-hazard industrial, aircraft hangars, transformer roomsDetection system triggers
Sprinkler spacing rules (BS EN 12845 / NFPA 13):
  • Light hazard (offices, hotels, residential): Maximum 4.6m between heads; 12m² coverage per head; 21m² per head (NFPA residential)
  • Ordinary hazard (retail, car parks, factories): Maximum 4.0m between heads; 12m² per head
  • High hazard (warehouse, industrial storage): Maximum 3.7m between heads; 9m² per head
Sprinkler head clearance: 25-30mm below ceiling (minimum); heads must be within 150mm of soffit level. Obstruction rules: heads must be 3x distance from obstruction as the distance the obstruction is below the ceiling.
System sizing:
  • Light hazard design density: 2.25 mm/min over 84m² assumed maximum area of operation
  • Ordinary hazard: 5.0 mm/min over 144-360m² (depending on OH group)
  • Riser sizes: 65mm (light hazard, small area); 100mm (ordinary hazard); 150mm (high hazard/large buildings)
  • Fire pump: Required if mains pressure/flow insufficient. Typically 100-300 L/min (light hazard); 500-2000 L/min (ordinary/high hazard). Pump room: 15-25m².
Water storage:
  • Tank sizing: Flow rate x duration. Light hazard: 30 minutes; ordinary: 60 minutes; high hazard: 90 minutes.
  • Typical tank: 20-50m³ (light hazard office); 100-300m³ (warehouse)
类型描述适用场景触发方式
湿式系统管道内始终充水有供暖的建筑（最常用）单个喷头在额定温度（57-74℃）下触发
干式系统管道内充压缩空气；触发后进水无供暖空间（停车场、装卸码头）、有冻结风险的区域单个喷头触发；空气排出后管道充水
预作用系统干式管道；仅当火灾探测系统也触发时才进水高价值物品区域（博物馆、服务器机房、档案馆）探测系统+喷头触发（双重联锁）
雨淋系统所有喷头常开（无热敏元件）；探测触发后整个区域喷水高危险工业场所、飞机库、变压器室探测系统触发
喷头间距规则（BS EN 12845 / NFPA 13）：
  • 轻危险级（办公楼、酒店、住宅）：喷头间距最大4.6m；每个喷头保护面积12m²；（NFPA住宅标准）每个喷头21m²
  • 中危险级（零售商业、停车场、工厂）：喷头间距最大4.0m；每个喷头保护面积12m²
  • 重危险级（仓库、工业仓储）：喷头间距最大3.7m；每个喷头保护面积9m²
喷头净距：最小距吊顶25-30mm；喷头必须位于板底以下150mm范围内。障碍物规则：喷头与障碍物的距离应为障碍物距吊顶高度的3倍。
系统尺寸：
  • 轻危险级设计喷水强度：在84m²的最大作用面积内为2.25 mm/min
  • 中危险级：在144-360m²作用面积内为5.0 mm/min（取决于中危险级等级）
  • 立管尺寸：65mm（轻危险级，小面积）；100mm（中危险级）；150mm（重危险级/大型建筑）
  • 消防泵：若市政水压/流量不足则需要。通常流量：100-300 L/min（轻危险级）；500-2000 L/min（中/重危险级）。泵房面积：15-25m²。
储水：
  • 水箱尺寸：流量×持续时间。轻危险级：30分钟；中危险级：60分钟；重危险级：90分钟。
  • 典型水箱容积：20-50m³（轻危险级办公楼）；100-300m³（仓库）

Fire Detection and Alarm Systems

火灾探测与报警系统

TypeDetector TypeCoverageApplication
ConventionalPoint detectors wired in zones1 detector per 50m² (smoke); 1 per 30m² (heat)Small buildings, low budget
AddressableIndividual detector addresses on loopSame coverage as conventional; faster identificationStandard for commercial buildings
Analogue addressableDetectors report analogue values; panel sets thresholdsEnhanced sensitivity; pre-alarm capabilityPremium offices, hospitals, heritage
Aspirating (VESDA)Network of sampling pipes, central laser detectorPipe network at ceiling; one unit per 200-500m²High-value (data centres, clean rooms, museums)
Beam detectorIR beam across space1 beam per 500-1000m² in large open volumesWarehouses, atria, churches, hangars
Linear heat detectionCable detects temperature along its lengthAlong cable routes, car parks, tunnelsCable trays, tunnels, conveyor belts
类型探测器类型保护范围适用场景
常规系统按区域布线的点型探测器每50m²1个（感烟）；每30m²1个（感温）小型建筑，低预算
可寻址系统回路上每个探测器有独立地址保护范围与常规系统相同；定位更快商业建筑标准配置
模拟可寻址系统探测器上报模拟值；主机设定阈值灵敏度更高；具备预报警功能高端办公楼、医院、文保建筑
吸气式（VESDA）采样管网+中央激光探测器吊顶内布置采样管网；单台服务200-500m²高价值场所（数据中心、洁净室、博物馆）
光束探测器穿越空间的红外光束大型开阔空间每500-1000m²1束仓库、中庭、教堂、机库
线型感温探测沿电缆长度探测温度的线缆沿电缆路由、停车场、隧道布置电缆桥架、隧道、传送带

Smoke Control Systems

烟气控制系统

TypeMechanismApplicationSpatial Impact
Natural smoke ventilationRoof vents/openable windows; buoyancy drives smoke outSingle-storey buildings, small atriaRoof openings: 2-5% of floor area; minimum 1.5m² per vent
Mechanical smoke extractPowered fans extract smoke from fire zoneMulti-storey, basement, large atriaExtract fan: 3-10 m³/s per zone; ductwork: 600-1200mm dia. or equivalent
Smoke curtainsMotorised fabric barriers descend from ceilingAtria, open-plan floors, shopping centres100-200mm housing at ceiling level; drops to 3m below ceiling
PressurisationFans pressurise escape stairs/lobbies to prevent smoke entryStair cores in tall buildings (>30m), basement stairsSupply fan: 1-5 m³/s per stair; dedicated shaft or ductwork
Design standards:
  • BS 7346 (components), BS EN 12101 (systems), BS 9999 (design guidance)
  • Stair pressurisation: 50 Pa positive pressure with all doors closed; 10 Pa with one door open. Air velocity through open door: 0.75 m/s minimum.
  • Smoke reservoir depth: 2.5-3.0m minimum beneath roof in naturally ventilated spaces; clear height below smoke layer: 2.5-3.0m.
类型工作原理适用场景空间影响
自然排烟屋顶通风口/可开启外窗；热压将烟气排出单层建筑、小型中庭屋顶开口面积：占地面面积的2-5%；每个通风口最小1.5m²
机械排烟电动风机从火灾区域排出烟气多层建筑、地下室、大型中庭排烟风机：每个区域3-10 m³/s；风管：直径600-1200mm或等效矩形
挡烟垂壁从吊顶降下的电动织物屏障中庭、开放式楼层、购物中心吊顶处安装盒尺寸100-200mm；下垂至吊顶以下3m
加压送风风机向疏散楼梯/前室加压，防止烟气进入高层建筑（>30m）的楼梯核心筒、地下室楼梯送风机：每部楼梯1-5 m³/s；需专用井道或风管
设计标准：
  • BS 7346（部件）、BS EN 12101（系统）、BS 9999（设计指南）
  • 楼梯加压送风：所有门关闭时正压50 Pa；单扇门开启时10 Pa。开启门处的风速最小为0.75 m/s。
  • 烟仓深度：自然排烟空间的屋顶下方最小2.5-3.0m；烟层下方的清晰高度为2.5-3.0m。

Fire Suppression (Specialist)

灭火系统（专用）

SystemAgentApplicationSpatial Impact
Gas suppression (FM-200, Novec 1230)Clean agent gasServer rooms, archives, museumsCylinder storage: 1-2m² per 50m³ room volume; sealed room required
CO2 suppressionCarbon dioxideElectrical switchgear, industrialHazardous to life — lockout system required; ventilation after discharge
Water mistFine water droplets (<1mm)Heritage buildings, tunnels, turbine hallsSmaller pipe sizes than sprinkler (25-50mm); higher pressure (40-200 bar)
FoamAFFF (aqueous film-forming foam)Aircraft hangars, fuel storage, car showroomsFoam tanks, proportioning equipment, foam makers
系统灭火剂适用场景空间影响
气体灭火（FM-200、Novec 1230）洁净气体服务器机房、档案馆、博物馆钢瓶储存：每50m³房间容积需1-2m²；房间需密闭
CO₂灭火二氧化碳电气开关柜、工业场所对生命有危险——需配备锁定系统；喷射后需通风
细水雾灭火细水雾（<1mm）文保建筑、隧道、涡轮机房管径比喷淋系统小（25-50mm）；压力更高（40-200 bar）
泡沫灭火AFFF（水成膜泡沫）飞机库、燃油储存、汽车展厅需泡沫罐、比例混合设备、泡沫产生器

Section 6: MEP Coordination

第6节：MEP协调

Spatial Coordination Strategy

空间协调策略

The fundamental principle of MEP coordination is zone allocation: reserving specific depths in the floor/ceiling void for structure, services, and finishes in a defined hierarchy.
Vertical zone allocation (from structural slab downward):
  1. Structure zone: Beam depth (or flat slab soffit). Nothing penetrates the structure without structural engineer approval.
  2. Primary services zone: Large ducts, main cable trays, main pipe runs. Runs perpendicular to or along primary structure.
  3. Secondary services zone: Branch ducts, secondary cable trays, sprinkler mains. Runs perpendicular to primary services.
  4. Terminal services zone: Sprinkler drops, light fittings, FCU units, chilled beams, final circuits. Closest to ceiling.
  5. Ceiling finish: Plasterboard, suspended tile, exposed services (if applicable).
MEP协调的基本原则是分区分配：在楼板/吊顶空间内按明确的层级为结构、设备和装修预留特定深度。
垂直分区分配（从结构板向下）：
  1. 结构区：梁高（或无梁楼板板底）。未经结构工程师批准，不得穿凿结构。
  2. 主设备区：大型风管、主电缆桥架、主管道。沿主结构垂直或平行布置。
  3. 次设备区：支管、次电缆桥架、喷淋干管。与主设备管道垂直布置。
  4. 末端设备区：喷淋下垂管、灯具、FCU机组、冷梁、末端回路。最靠近吊顶。
  5. 吊顶装修层：石膏板、吊顶板、明装设备（如适用）。

Typical Ceiling Void Depths

典型吊顶空间深度

Building TypeMinimum Void (mm)Typical Void (mm)Maximum Void (mm)Notes
Residential (apartment)200300-400500Simple services; may be flush ceiling with bulkheads
Hotel (guest room)250350-450550FCU + fresh air duct + sprinkler
Commercial office (standard)400500-700900VAV or FCU + cable trays + sprinkler
Commercial office (premium)350450-600700Chilled beams + reduced ductwork
Retail (shell unit)400600-8001000Large HVAC ducts for high cooling loads
Hospital (general ward)600800-10001200Extensive services, medical gases, access requirements
Hospital (operating suite)8001000-15002000Laminar flow, theatre pendants, interstitial space
School / university300400-600700Mixed-mode may reduce void
Laboratory600800-12001500Fume extract, specialist gases, variable air volume
建筑类型最小吊顶空间（mm）典型吊顶空间（mm）最大吊顶空间（mm）备注
住宅（公寓）200300-400500设备简单；可能为平吊顶加局部跌级
酒店（客房）250350-450550FCU+新风管+喷淋
标准商业办公楼400500-700900VAV或FCU+电缆桥架+喷淋
高端商业办公楼350450-600700冷梁+风管减少
零售商业（毛坯）400600-8001000大型HVAC风管，满足高冷负荷需求
医院（普通病房）600800-10001200设备繁多、医用气体、检修要求高
医院（手术套房）8001000-15002000层流、手术室吊塔、设备夹层
中小学/大学300400-600700混合模式可减少吊顶空间
实验室600800-12001500排风、专用气体、变风量系统

Clash Detection Process

碰撞检测流程

Stage 1: Design Coordination (pre-BIM clash detection)
  • Agree zone allocation drawings showing reserved depths for each service in section
  • Define priority hierarchy: gravity drainage > primary ductwork > primary pipework > cable trays > secondary branches > terminals
  • Identify coordination "hot spots": risers, plant rooms, ceiling void crossover points, low-headroom areas, transfer beam locations
Stage 2: BIM Clash Detection
  • Model all services to agreed LOD (Level of Development):
    • LOD 200 (concept): Approximate sizes and routes
    • LOD 300 (developed design): Specific sizes, materials, connections. Sufficient for coordination.
    • LOD 350: Specific sizes plus supports, hangers, access clearances
    • LOD 400 (construction): Fabrication-ready models
  • Run automated clash detection (Navisworks, Solibri, BIM Collab)
  • Classify clashes: Hard (physical intersection), soft (clearance violation), workflow (sequencing)
  • Resolve through weekly coordination meetings
Stage 3: Construction Coordination
  • Produce coordinated services sections at key locations (1:20 or 1:25 scale)
  • Issue combined services drawings (CSD) for each ceiling zone
  • Agree installation sequence: structure → main cable trays → main ductwork → main pipework → branches → terminals → ceiling
阶段1：设计协调（BIM前碰撞检测）
  • 确认分区分配图纸，以剖面形式显示各系统的预留深度
  • 确定优先级：重力排水 > 主风管 > 主管道 > 电缆桥架 > 支管 > 末端
  • 识别协调“热点区域”：立管、机房、吊顶空间交叉点、低净高区域、转换梁位置
阶段2：BIM碰撞检测
  • 所有系统按约定的LOD（发展等级）建模：
    • LOD 200（概念阶段）：近似尺寸和路由
    • LOD 300（深化设计阶段）：明确尺寸、材料、连接。满足协调要求。
    • LOD 350：明确尺寸，加上支吊架、检修净空
    • LOD 400（施工阶段）：可直接用于加工的模型
  • 运行自动碰撞检测（Navisworks、Solibri、BIM Collab）
  • 碰撞分类：硬碰撞（物理交叉）、软碰撞（净空违规）、工作流碰撞（工序问题）
  • 通过每周协调会议解决碰撞问题
阶段3：施工协调
  • 绘制关键位置的综合设备剖面（比例1:20或1:25）
  • 发布每个吊顶区域的综合设备图（CSD）
  • 确定安装顺序：结构 → 主电缆桥架 → 主风管 → 主管道 → 支管 → 末端 → 吊顶

Riser Shaft Sizing

立管井尺寸

Service RiserSize per Floor (m²)Notes
Electrical (bus-bar + cable trays)0.4-0.6600x800mm typical; segregate from water
Data/telecoms0.2-0.4400x600mm; may combine with electrical
Cold water0.2-0.3300x400mm; insulated pipes + valve access
Hot water (flow + return)0.2-0.3300x400mm; insulated pipes
Soil/waste stack0.2-0.3300x400mm; access panels at each floor
Rainwater0.1-0.2200x200mm (internal downpipe)
HVAC (supply + extract duct)0.5-2.0+Highly variable — depends on system type and floor area served
Gas0.1-0.2200x200mm; fire-sealed at each floor
Fire sprinkler riser0.2-0.3300x300mm; valve set at each floor
Smoke extract shaft0.5-2.0Building-specific; fire-rated construction
Combined riser strategy:
  • Group risers by type: wet risers together (water, sprinkler, drainage), dry risers together (electrical, data, HVAC)
  • Minimum riser dimensions: 600mm depth for access (person entry for maintenance)
  • Access doors: 600x600mm minimum at each floor level, 450x450mm for small risers
  • Fire stopping: All penetrations through fire-rated floors and walls must be fire-stopped to match the fire rating of the element penetrated
设备立管每层面积（m²）备注
电气（母线槽+电缆桥架）0.4-0.6典型尺寸600x800mm；与水系统隔离
数据/电信0.2-0.4400x600mm；可与电气合并
冷水0.2-0.3300x400mm；保温管道+阀门检修
热水（供+回）0.2-0.3300x400mm；保温管道
污水/废水立管0.2-0.3300x400mm；每层设检修口
雨水0.1-0.2200x200mm（内部雨水立管）
HVAC（送+排风管）0.5-2.0+差异极大——取决于系统类型和服务的楼层面积
燃气0.1-0.2200x200mm；每层做防火封堵
消防喷淋立管0.2-0.3300x300mm；每层设阀门组
排烟井0.5-2.0依建筑而定；耐火结构
综合管井策略：
  • 按类型分组立管：水管类集中布置（水、喷淋、排水），电管类集中布置（电气、数据、HVAC）
  • 最小管井尺寸：深度600mm以满足检修（人员进入维护）
  • 检修门：每层最小600x600mm，小管井可采用450x450mm
  • 防火封堵：所有穿越耐火楼板和墙体的开孔必须做防火封堵，耐火等级与被穿越构件一致

Plant Room Sizing Rules of Thumb

机房尺寸经验法则

Plant RoomSize (% of GFA)Typical Location
Main mechanical plant (AHU, boilers, chillers)3-6% (office), 5-10% (hospital)Basement and/or roof
Chiller plant0.5-1.5%Roof (air-cooled) or basement (water-cooled with cooling tower on roof)
Boiler plant0.3-0.8%Basement or ground floor (gas supply access, flue route to roof)
Main electrical switchroom0.3-0.5%Ground or basement (utility connection)
Generator room0.3-0.5%Basement (with exhaust flue to exterior) or ground level
UPS / battery room0.1-0.3%Adjacent to IT/server rooms
Water tank room0.2-0.5%Roof (gravity) or basement (boosted)
Sprinkler pump room0.1-0.2%Ground or basement (near water supply)
Lift motor room (if applicable)10-15m² per lift groupAbove shaft
BMS / controls room10-20m²Central location, any floor
机房类型面积（占GFA比例）典型位置
主机电设备用房（AHU、锅炉、制冷机）3-6%（办公楼），5-10%（医院）地下室和/或屋顶
制冷机房0.5-1.5%屋顶（风冷型）或地下室（水冷型，屋顶设冷却塔）
锅炉房0.3-0.8%地下室或地面层（便于燃气接入，烟道可通屋顶）
主电气开关站0.3-0.5%地面或地下室（便于市政接入）
发电机房0.3-0.5%地下室（带排烟道通室外）或地面层
UPS/电池室0.1-0.3%紧邻IT/服务器机房
水箱间0.2-0.5%屋顶（重力供水）或地下室（加压供水）
喷淋泵房0.1-0.2%地面或地下室（靠近水源）
电梯机房（如适用）每梯组10-15m²井道上方
BMS/控制室10-20m²建筑中部位置，任意楼层

Below-Ground Services

地下管线

External services entering the building below ground:
  • Incoming water main: 80-150mm dia., min. 750mm deep (frost), entry at meter location
  • Gas supply: 50-100mm dia., min. 450mm deep, entry at meter/governor
  • Electrical supply: HV cable from substation or LV from transformer, min. 600mm deep in duct
  • Telecoms/data: Multiple duct entries, min. 450mm deep
  • Foul drainage: 100-225mm dia., min. 600mm deep, to public sewer or treatment
  • Surface water drainage: 100-300mm dia., to public sewer, soakaway, or attenuation tank
  • District heating/cooling: Insulated pre-insulated pipe (DN50-DN200), min. 600mm deep
Coordination: Below-ground services survey (PAS 128) essential before design. Services should not cross beneath foundations. Allow 1m clear separation between parallel services of different types. Service trenches should be accessible without excavating building foundations.
从地下接入建筑的外部管线：
  • 给水引入管：直径80-150mm，最小埋深750mm（防冻），在水表处接入
  • 燃气供应管：直径50-100mm，最小埋深450mm，在燃气表/调压器处接入
  • 供电电缆：来自变电站的高压电缆或来自变压器的低压电缆，穿管埋深最小600mm
  • 电信/数据：多根管道接入，最小埋深450mm
  • 污水排水管：直径100-225mm，最小埋深600mm，接入市政污水管或处理设施
  • 雨水排水管：直径100-300mm，接入市政雨水管、渗滤池或调蓄池
  • 区域供热/供冷：预制保温管（DN50-DN200），最小埋深600mm
协调要求：设计前必须进行地下管线探测（PAS 128）。管线不得穿越基础下方。不同类型的平行管线之间应预留1m的净距。管线管沟应可检修，无需开挖建筑基础。

Roof Plant Screening

屋顶设备遮挡

Roof-mounted plant (chillers, AHUs, cooling towers, generators, exhaust fans) typically requires acoustic and visual screening:
  • Acoustic enclosure: Required if plant noise exceeds planning limits at nearest sensitive receptor. Typically 10-25 dB(A) attenuation needed. Louvred enclosure with acoustic lining.
  • Visual screening: Height to fully screen tallest plant item (typically 2.0-3.0m). Material to match building aesthetic (perforated metal, expanded mesh, timber louvre, living wall).
  • Access: Maintenance access routes to all plant items. Minimum 800mm clear between plant and screen. Crane access or hatch for plant replacement.
  • Structural load: Roof structure must be designed for plant loads. Typical: chiller 100-300 kN on 4 supports; AHU 50-200 kN; cooling tower 50-150 kN. Anti-vibration mounts required.
  • Planning impact: Roof plant and screening count toward building height. Screen height must be included in planning application. Some authorities require 45-degree sight line analysis from ground level.
屋顶设备（制冷机、AHU、冷却塔、发电机、排风机）通常需要隔声和视觉遮挡：
  • 隔声罩：若设备噪声在最近的敏感点处超过规划限值则需要。通常需要10-25 dB(A)的隔声量。带吸声内衬的百叶式围挡。
  • 视觉遮挡：高度需完全遮挡最高的设备（通常2.0-3.0m）。材料需匹配建筑美学（穿孔金属、钢板网、木百叶、垂直绿化）。
  • 检修通道：所有设备都要有维护通道。设备与遮挡之间的净距最小800mm。需设置吊车通道或吊装孔以便设备更换。
  • 结构荷载：屋顶结构必须按设备荷载设计。典型值：制冷机4个支座总荷载100-300 kN；AHU 50-200 kN；冷却塔50-150 kN。需设置减振支座。
  • 规划影响：屋顶设备和遮挡计入建筑高度。遮挡高度必须纳入规划申请。部分主管部门要求进行地面45度视线分析。

Renewable Energy Integration

可再生能源集成

Architects must coordinate the spatial and structural requirements of on-site renewable energy systems:
  • Photovoltaic (PV) panels: Roof area required — 6-8m² per kWp. Typical office yield: 150-180 kWh/m² panel/year (UK); 250-350 kWh/m² (southern US/Mediterranean). Weight: 12-20 kg/m² including mounting. Orientation: ideally south-facing at 30-35 degree tilt, but east-west flat arrays acceptable at 85-90% yield. Minimum 300mm gap below panels for maintenance. Avoid shading from roof plant — PV layout coordinated with plant screening.
  • Solar thermal: 2-4m² per dwelling (domestic hot water). Higher yield than PV per m² for hot water but limited application to space heating. Pipe runs from roof to plant room (15-22mm insulated copper).
  • Wind turbines: Building-mounted micro-turbines generally underperform. Roof-mounted or building-integrated vertical-axis turbines: 1-10 kW. Vibration and noise transfer to structure is a significant issue. Most effective as standalone mast-mounted units on exposed sites.
  • Heat pumps (ASHP/GSHP): See HVAC Section. Space requirements in plant room: 1.5-2.5% of GFA. External units require acoustic setback from boundaries.
  • Battery storage: Lithium-ion battery arrays for PV storage or demand response. Space: 0.5-1.0m² per 10 kWh. Weight: 100-200 kg per 10 kWh. Ventilation and fire suppression requirements per NFPA 855. Temperature control: 15-25C operating range.
建筑师必须协调现场可再生能源系统的空间和结构要求：
  • 光伏（PV）板：所需屋顶面积——每kWp需6-8m²。典型办公楼发电量：英国150-180 kWh/m²面板/年；美国南部/地中海地区250-350 kWh/m²。重量：含支架12-20 kg/m²。朝向：理想情况为朝南、倾角30-35度，但东西向平置阵列也可接受，发电量为85-90%。面板下方最小预留300mm间隙用于维护。避免被屋顶设备遮挡——PV布置需与设备遮挡协调。
  • 太阳能热利用：每户住宅需2-4m²（生活热水）。产热水的单位面积发电量高于PV，但仅适用于空间供暖的场景有限。从屋顶到机房的管道（15-22mm保温铜管）。
  • 风力涡轮机：建筑安装的微型涡轮机通常表现不佳。屋顶安装或建筑一体化的垂直轴涡轮机：1-10 kW。振动和噪声向结构传递是一个重要问题。在开阔场地独立安装在桅杆上的机组效率最高。
  • 热泵（ASHP/GSHP）：参见HVAC章节。机房空间需求：占GFA的1.5-2.5%。室外机需与边界保持隔声距离。
  • 电池储能：用于PV储能或需求响应的锂离子电池阵列。空间：每10 kWh需0.5-1.0m²。重量：每10 kWh为100-200 kg。通风和灭火要求符合NFPA 855。温度控制：运行范围15-25℃。

Building Management System (BMS) and Smart Controls

建筑管理系统（BMS）与智能控制

The BMS integrates all building services into a single monitoring and control platform. Spatial and infrastructure requirements:
  • BMS head-end / server room: 10-20m² (centralised PC/server, UPS, network switches)
  • BMS outstations: One per floor or zone, mounted in riser cupboard or ceiling void (300x200x100mm controller units)
  • Cabling: Cat 6A or fibre backbone to each outstation. BACnet/IP or Modbus protocol. Dedicated containment (50x50mm to 100x100mm trunking) separate from power cables.
  • Sensors: Temperature (every zone), CO2 (occupied spaces), humidity (critical zones), occupancy/PIR (lighting and ventilation control), lux level (daylight dimming). Wired or wireless — wireless reduces containment but requires gateway devices.
  • Integration points: HVAC controllers, lighting controllers (DALI), blinds/shading, access control, fire alarm (monitoring only), lifts (monitoring only), energy meters (sub-metering at distribution board level).
  • Smart building platforms: Modern buildings increasingly deploy IoT platforms above the BMS layer for data analytics, predictive maintenance, occupancy analytics, and tenant apps. Requires robust Wi-Fi 6 / 5G infrastructure and edge computing nodes (one per 2-3 floors).
BMS将所有建筑设备集成到一个监控平台。空间和基础设施要求：
  • BMS主机/服务器室：10-20m²（集中式PC/服务器、UPS、网络交换机）
  • BMS分站：每层或每个区域一个，安装在立管井或吊顶内（控制器尺寸300x200x100mm）
  • 布线：每个分站采用Cat 6A或光纤主干。协议为BACnet/IP或Modbus。专用线槽（50x50mm至100x100mm线槽），与电力电缆分开。
  • 传感器：温度（每个区域）、CO₂（有人空间）、湿度（关键区域）、人员/PIR（照明和通风控制）、照度（日光调光）。有线或无线——无线可减少线槽，但需要网关设备。
  • 集成点：HVAC控制器、照明控制器（DALI）、百叶/遮阳、门禁、火灾报警（仅监控）、电梯（仅监控）、电能表（配电盘级分户计量）。
  • 智慧建筑平台：现代建筑越来越多地在BMS层之上部署IoT平台，用于数据分析、预测性维护、人员分析和租户应用。需要可靠的Wi-Fi 6 / 5G基础设施和边缘计算节点（每2-3层一个）。

Services Design Benchmarks by Building Type

不同建筑类型的设备设计基准

ParameterResidentialOfficeHospitalSchoolHotel
Heating load (W/m²)40-6030-5050-8040-6040-60
Cooling load (W/m²)30-5060-10080-15030-6050-80
Fresh air rate (L/s/person)8-1210-1210-155-810-12
Small power (W/m²)15-2525-3520-3015-2510-15
Lighting power (W/m²)5-88-128-128-105-10
Hot water demand (L/person/day)40-603-550-803-5100-150
Plant room (% GFA)2-45-88-123-55-7
Ceiling void (mm)200-400500-800800-1200400-600350-500
Riser area (% floor area)1.0-1.51.5-2.52.5-4.01.0-2.01.5-2.5
参数住宅办公楼医院学校酒店
供暖负荷（W/m²）40-6030-5050-8040-6040-60
制冷负荷（W/m²）30-5060-10080-15030-6050-80
新风量（L/s/人）8-1210-1210-155-810-12
小动力负荷（W/m²）15-2525-3520-3015-2510-15
照明功率（W/m²）5-88-128-128-105-10
热水需求（L/人/天）40-603-550-803-5100-150
机房面积（占GFA比例）2-45-88-123-55-7
吊顶空间（mm）200-400500-800800-1200400-600350-500
立管面积（占楼层面积比例）1.0-1.51.5-2.52.5-4.01.0-2.01.5-2.5